Editing Second Triumvirate (section)

== Triumviral period ==
[[File:Jean-Léon Gérôme - The Death of Caesar - Walters 37884.jpg|thumb|A 19th century depiction by [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]] of Caesar's corpse and the assassins' celebration.]]

Following the [[assassination of Julius Caesar]] on 15 March 44&nbsp;BC, there was initially a settlement reached between the perpetrators, who styled themselves ''liberatores'', and remaining Caesarian supporters. This settlement included an amnesty for the tyrannicides, confirmation of Caesar's official actions, and abolition of the [[Roman dictator|dictatorship]].{{sfnm|Tempest|2017|1p=241|Goldsworthy|2006|2p=509}} By late spring 44&nbsp;BC, the provinces assigned by Caesar before his death – many to his later killers – were largely confirmed.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=242}}

Mark Antony was one of the consuls for 44&nbsp;BC and on 2 June 44&nbsp;BC, was able to push through illegal legislation assigning to himself the provinces of [[Cisalpine Gaul|Cisalpine]] and [[Transalpine Gaul]], displacing their existing governors.<ref>{{harvnb|Rawson|1992|p=474|ps=. The bill was "trebly irregular because it was not a ''dies comitialis'', due notice had not been given, and violence was used".}}</ref> These governorships secured for Antony a political future where he would be able to intimidate the senate and Italy from across the river [[Rubicon]]. Antony also persuaded the senate to disarm [[Marcus Junius Brutus|Marcus Brutus]] and [[Gaius Cassius Longinus|Cassius]] (the two leading tyrannicides) giving them grain supply assignments; both men viewed these assignments as insults, later compounded by their assignment to minor provinces after their praetorships.{{sfn|Rawson|1992|p=475}}

Relations between Antony and Caesar's legal heir, Octavian, also started to break down: Octavian was successful in attracting some of Caesar's veterans from Antony's camp, undercutting Antony's military support.{{sfn|Rawson|1992|p=475}} Antony also sought later in the year to isolate Cicero politically, as the eloquent ex-consul was prestigious and on friendly terms with large portions of the aristocracy.{{sfn|Rawson|1992|p=477}} Octavian, starting a bidding war for extreme Caesarians, broke with Antony and formed for himself a private army. In December 44&nbsp;BC, Cicero induced the senate to honour Octavian's efforts and to support the existing governors of Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul in retaining their provinces against Antony.{{sfn|Rawson|1992|p=479}} The senate's forces, led by the two consuls and Octavian, put Antony to flight at the [[Battle of Mutina]] on 21 April 43&nbsp;BC.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=243}}{{sfn|Rawson|1992|p=483}} After news of the victory, Cicero had the senate declare Antony a [[Hostis|public enemy]]. But with both consuls dead, Octavian moved against the senate – both sides knew they were only using the other – and marched south to secure for himself the consulships opened by their deaths.{{sfn|Rawson|1992|p=485}}

=== Creation, 43&nbsp;BC ===
{{see also|lex Titia}}

After Octavian and his forces reached Rome on 19 August 43&nbsp;BC, he secured for himself election to the consulship with his cousin [[Quintus Pedius]]. They moved quickly to enact legislation confirming Octavian's adoption as Caesar's heir and establishing courts to condemn Caesar's assassins ''in absentia''.{{sfn|Rawson|1992|p=486}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Welch |first=Kathryn |date=2014 |title=The ''lex Pedia'' of 43 BCE and its aftermath |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26740133 |journal=Hermathena |issue=196/197 |pages=137–162 |jstor=26740133 |issn=0018-0750}}</ref> They also repealed the declaration of Antony as a public enemy. Octavian then moved north to treat with Antony under Lepidus' protection. With the Caesarian soldiers' urging, Octavian and Antony reconciled; Octavian also would marry Antony's step-daughter [[Claudia (wife of Octavian)|Clodia]].{{sfn|Rawson|1992|p=486}} The three men then established themselves as the ''triumviri rei publicae constituendae'' (the latter words indicate a ''causa'' or commission for the reconstitution of the republic{{sfn|Vervaet|2020|pp=24, 30}}) for five years. This was confirmed by the ''[[lex Titia]]'', proposed by a friendly tribune at their request.{{sfn|Broughton|1952|pp=337, 340}}

The law was modelled on the [[Lex Valeria (82 BC)|''lex Valeria'']] in 82&nbsp;BC which established Sulla's dictatorship.{{sfn|Vervaet|2020|pp=36–37}} They received power to issue legally binding edicts,<ref>{{harnvb|Vervaet|2020|pp=34–35|ps=, also noting a connection between the Second Triumvirate's legislative powers and the powers of triumvirates established with constitutive powers for Roman colonies.}}</ref> were granted ''[[imperium maius]]'' which permitted them to overrule the ordinary provincial governors and to take credit for their victories,<ref>{{harnvb|Vervaet|2020|p=39|ps=, ''summum imperium auspiciumque''.}}</ref>{{sfn|Vervaet|2020|p=46}} and to act {{lang|la|sine [[provocatio]]ne}} (without right of appeal).{{sfnm|Vervaet|2020|1p=36|Pelling|1996|2p=1}} They also received powers to call the senate and directly appoint magistrates and provincial governors.{{sfn|Millar|1973|pp=51 et seq}} The legal powers given, exceeding those of the ordinary consuls, were noted on the [[Capitoline Fasti]], which list the triumvirs above the consuls.{{sfn|Vervaet|2020|p=39}}

Octavian and Antony then prepared to wage war on the ''liberatores'' with forty total legions. They also divided the western Roman world:
* Antony would receive Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul,
* Lepidus would receive Narbonensis and Spain, and
* Octavian (then the junior partner) would receive Africa, Sardinia, and Sicily.{{sfn|Rawson|1992|p=486}}

The triumvirs' powers were initially set to lapse on 31 December 38&nbsp;BC, though the legal powers may have been retained (after their later renewal in 38&nbsp;BC) all the way until 27&nbsp;BC when Octavian abdicated his magistracy.{{sfn|Vervaet|2020|p=32}}

=== Proscriptions ===

In desperate need of money, the three men issued a declaration which – according to Appian – declared Caesar's ''clementia'' to have been a failure; it was appended with a death list.<ref>{{harvnb|Rawson|1992|p=486|ps=, citing {{harvnb|App. ''BCiv''.|loc=4.8–11}}.}}</ref> Some three hundred senators and 2,000 [[equites]] were then killed;<ref>{{harvnb|Thein|2018|ps=, citing {{harvnb|App. ''BCiv''.|loc=4.5}}.}}</ref> some victims escaped to Macedonia or Sicily (held by [[Marcus Junius Brutus|Brutus]] and [[Sextus Pompey]], respectively) or were able to plead successfully for clemency. Still without sufficient funds, the triumvirs seized eighteen rich Italian towns and redistributed them to their soldiers.{{sfn|Rawson|1992|p=486}}

The proscriptions claimed enemies and friends of the triumvirs. Cicero, whom Octavian had held in high esteem, was placed on the death lists along with his brother, nephew, and son; Cicero's activism against Antony in the [[Philippicae]] marked him for retribution. The triumvirs themselves traded friends and family to secure the addition of their enemies to the death lists. Persons on the proscription lists had their properties confiscated and sold; freelance assassins, bounty hunters, and informers received cash rewards for aiding in the killings.{{sfn|Thein|2018}}

=== Liberators' civil war, 42&nbsp;BC ===
{{further|Liberators' civil war|Battle of Philippi}}
[[File:Brutuscng752619.jpg|thumb|Coin, minted by [[Marcus Junius Brutus]] in 42&nbsp;BC, depicting himself on left and commemorating the [[assassination of Julius Caesar]] on the [[Ides of March]] on right.]]
[[File:Roman-Empire-43BC.png|thumb|Division of territory at the foundation of the Triumvirate (43&nbsp;BC).{{col-begin}}{{col-2}}{{legend|#7D87FF|Sextus Pompey}}{{legend|#ED1C24|Brutus & Cassius}}{{legend|#FED250|Rome's client kingdoms}}{{legend|#FF8C8C|Ptolemaic Egypt}}{{col-end}}]]

Preparations for war on the tyrannicides started promptly. In Rome, the new year saw [[Julius Caesar]] consecrated as a [[Divus|god]].{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=5}} With the triumvirs having slaughtered their political enemies in Italy, they moved with some forty legions against Brutus and Cassius in the east: Lepidus remained in Italy – supervised by two pro-Antony governors – while Antony and Octavian moved to cross the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]] for [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]].{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=5}}

While some eight legions had crossed the Adriatic early in the year, the naval forces of the ''liberatores'' and of Sextus Pompey were able to interdict the triumvir's transports. Octavian dispatched [[Quintus Salvius Salvidienus Rufus]] against Sextus Pompey's base of operations in Sicily, resulting in a bloody but indecisive battle near [[Messina|Messana]].{{sfn|Pelling|1996|pp=5–6}} It took until summer for the triumvirs to move all their armies into Macedonia.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=6}} Through early 42&nbsp;BC, Brutus and Cassius were active in Asia sacking cities and forcing tribute from the provincials to pay their own soldiers.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|pp=245–46}} The ''liberatores'', busy, delayed marching west (perhaps an error in retrospect); they moved to intercept Antony and Octavian only in mid-July.<ref>{{harvnb|Pelling|1996|pp=6–7|ps=. "It would surely have been better to move west quickly... and seek to isolate the advanced force on the west coast of Greece [and] play the 48 campaign over again ... the Liberators' brutal treatment [of Asia] did nothing for their posthumous moral reputation. Perhaps it also cost them the war".}}</ref>

The triumvirs' advance forces reached Philippi first, but were outmanoeuvred and forced to retreat. Brutus and Cassius, hugely outnumbering the advance force, reached Philippi in early September, forcing the triumvirs' advance forces to retreat. Antony and Octavian arrived some days later. The ''liberatores'' first attempted to avoid battle in light of the triumvirs' weak supply situation. But Antony was successful in forcing battle with the construction of earthworks on Cassius' flank.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|pp=7–8}}

The ''liberatores'' accepted battle, triggering the first battle: Brutus fought Octavian, Cassius fought Antony. Brutus' forces were successful and stormed Octavian's camp and destroying three of Octavian's legions. Cassius' forces, however, were less successful; Antony was able to storm Cassius' camp around the same time. Believing the battle was lost, Cassius committed suicide.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=8}} In the aftermath, Cassius' forces were amalgamated into Brutus' army.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|pp=203–4}}

Three weeks later, on 23 October 42&nbsp;BC, Brutus offered battle again, fearing desertions and possible cutting of his supply lines.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=8}} In this second battle, the combined forces of Antony and Octavian defeated Brutus' army. Antony was largely the victor – Octavian apparently spent most of the first battle hiding in a marsh{{sfnm|Pelling|1996|1p=8|Tempest|2017|2p=202}} – and had forced the ''liberatores'' to battle and defeat twice.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=8}} In the aftermath, Brutus committed suicide.{{Sfn|Tempest|2017|p=208}}

=== Antony turns east ===
In the aftermath of Philippi, Antony moved to reorganise the wealthy eastern provinces. His provinces and legions were also adduced: retaining Transalpine Gaul, he took Narbonensis from Lepidus, though he gave up Cisalpine Gaul to Italy. Octavian's assignment was less easy: he would have the privilege of settling the veterans of Philippi in Italy and carrying on the war against Sextus Pompey in Sicily. Lepidus, however, not sharing in the glory, gave Spain to Octavian in return for Africa only.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=9}} This new strategic position placed Antony at the head of an enormous advantage. His position in the east allowed him enormous resources with which he could overwhelm the west as Sulla had. His position in Gaul gave him easy access to Italy, just as Caesar had before [[Caesar's civil war|his civil war]]. Moreover, while Antony would be in the east, his trusted lieutenants controlled the Gallic provinces. This strategic position placed him firmly at the head of the triumvirate.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|pp=9–10}}

Antony moved first against [[Parthian Empire|Parthia]], which had aided the ''liberatores'' and was harbouring the Pompeian commander [[Quintus Labienus]], (son of [[Titus Labienus]] who had served with Caesar during the [[Gallic Wars|Gallic wars]] and fought against him during the [[Caesar's civil war|civil war]]).{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=10}} In the preparations for war, however, Antony found most of the east largely sucked dry by the previous armies of [[Publius Cornelius Dolabella (consul 44 BC)|Dolabella]], Cassius, and Brutus, and so was gentle with the areas that Brutus and Cassius had pillaged. He also displayed favour for great cultural centres and toured the eastern provinces seeking to buttress popular support.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|pp=10–11}}

Moving down the Mediterranean coast, Antony confirmed a number of rulers – in spite of their previous support for the ''liberatores'' or for Parthia – in Palestine and called Cleopatra to attend to him in Cilicia.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|pp=11–12}} Cleopatra quickly entered into an affair with Antony, which proved useful to her: Antony helped her secure her throne with the death of her sister [[Arsinoe IV|Arsinoe]] and against other Ptolemaic claimants. While ancient writers speculated on Antony being manipulated by the Egyptian queen, it is more likely in this period he was merely attempting to strengthen Cleopatra's position in Egypt as part of his policy of favouring strong allied monarchs. Regardless, he left her in the spring of 40 to embark on a campaign against Parthia.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=12}}

The Parthians, in the winter of 41 BC, knowing that Antony was preparing an offensive, struck first. Invading Asia Minor and Syria under the command of [[Pacorus I|Pacorus]] and [[Quintus Labienus]] in the early spring of 40&nbsp;BC, the Parthian forces were largely unchallenged: Pacorus moved south for Palestine while Labienus moved west through Cilicia for Ionia.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=13}} Antony at the time was wholly distracted from the Parthian invasion due to the [[Perusine War]].{{sfn|Pelling|1996|pp=13–14}}

=== Perusine War, 41–40 BC ===
{{see also|Perusine War}}
{{Location map|Italy
|caption     = Location of [[Perusia]] ([[Perugia]] in Italian) on a map of modern Italy.
|coordinates = {{coord|43|6|44|N|12|23|20|E|display=inline,title}}
|relief      = yes
}}
[[Image:Lucius Antonius.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.8|Coin depicting [[Lucius Antonius (brother of Mark Antony)|Lucius Antonius]].]]

The veterans' demands for lands in Italy – in the midst of a famine, which itself was exacerbated by Sextus Pompey's naval blockade of Italy, – caused protests and unrest throughout the Italian countryside.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=14}} Antony's brother, [[Lucius Antonius (brother of Mark Antony)|Lucius Antonius]], serving as consul for 41&nbsp;BC, and Antony's wife [[Fulvia]] fanned the flames of this unrest to undermine Octavian.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|pp=14–15}} They spread propaganda indicting Octavian's regime with stomping on citizen rights and favouring Octavian's veterans over Antony's. Although there was little truth behind these charges, they were largely able to build up support for a militant rising against Octavian.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|pp=15–16}}

Antony attempted to remain largely aloof to the goings-on, probably so he could exploit the outcome, but his supporters in Italy were largely uninformed of his intentions and readied for conflict. The consul Lucius, in the summer of 41&nbsp;BC, occupied Rome with an army; however, he was beaten back by Octavian's forces and besieged in [[Perusia]]. Unsure of Antony's intentions, the pro-Antony governors in the two Gauls and in southern Italy stood by. Eventually, Perusia was captured: Octavian let Lucius Antonius and Fulvia go and spared Lucius' soldiers when Octavian's own soldiers interceded; Octavian, however, sacked the town, massacred its councillors, and had it burnt to the ground.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=16}}

After the death of one of the pro-Antony governors in Gaul in the summer of 40&nbsp;BC, Octavian occupied the province. He also gained the support of the legions in southern Italy. Antony, concerned, hurried back to Italy from the east that same summer with substantial forces.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=17}}

=== Treaties of Brundisium and Misenum, 40–39&nbsp;BC ===
{{anchor|Treaty of Brundisium|Pact of Brundisium}}

[[File:Roman-Empire-39BC-sm.png|thumb|Territory after the Treaty of Brundisium.{{col-begin}}{{col-2}} {{legend|#81EE5B|Antony}}{{legend|#C19666|Lepidus}}{{legend|#DE8DE0|Octavian}}{{legend|#FF925E|Triumvirs collectively}}{{col-end}}]]

As relations deteriorated between Antony and Octavian, Octavian moved to woo Sextus Pompey over to his side. As part of this, he married [[Scribonia (wife of Octavian)|Scribonia]], Sextus' sister-in-law, in the summer of 40&nbsp;BC. At the same time, however, Sextus was attempting to broker an agreement with Antony; receiving a positive response from Antony, he raided the Italian coast and took Sardinia from Octavian. Another ex-republican naval commander, [[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 32 BC)|Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]], was also induced to join Antony's side.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=17}}

When Antony sailed to Brundisium, Octavian's garrison of five legions refused to admit him. It was then besieged. Octavian's lieutenant [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]] arrived with reinforcements but was turned back after some skirmishing. The troops on both sides, however, urged their leaders to come to terms. Octavian and Antony conducted negotiations through intermediaries (the envoys were [[Gaius Maecenas]] and [[Gaius Asinius Pollio]], respectively). Negotiations for the treaty completed in September 40&nbsp;BC:{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=18}}
* Octavian's occupation of Gaul was recognised; he also would be granted Illyricum.
* Antony would be confirmed as master of the east.
* Lepidus retained Africa.
* Antony would lead a military expedition against Parthia to avenge Crassus' defeat at [[Battle of Carrhae|Carrhae]].
* Octavian would either reach an agreement with or defeat Sextus Pompey.
* Amnesty would be granted for former republicans.
* Italy would be shared, but Octavian's personal presence on the peninsula made it ''de facto'' one of his territories.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=18}}

The treaty would be sealed by another marriage: Antony would wed Octavian's sister [[Octavia the Younger|Octavia]]. The announcement of peace was greatly celebrated by the people of Italy. Both dynasts celebrated [[Roman ovation|ovation]]s when entering Rome in October. But public opinion soured when they also announced new higher taxes amid further disruption of grain ships from Sextus' fleet.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=19}} While in Rome, they also secured the senate's rubber stamp for a required dispensation for Octavia's marriage (she was not yet out of mourning for her previous husband) and for triumviral political and territorial settlements generally.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=20}}

The dynasts also negotiated peace with Sextus Pompey at [[Miseno|Misenum]] in the summer of 39&nbsp;BC: they confirmed him in Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and the Peloponnese for five years. They promised him the consulship in 33&nbsp;BC on expiration of his commands and had him elected [[augur]]. In exchange, Sextus would guarantee free passage of Italian grain ships and suppress Mediterranean piracy; his supporters also would receive amnesty and compensation for seized properties; his soldiers received the same retirement benefits as those of the triumvirs and his runaway slaves were granted freedom.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=20}} The last concessions to Sextus' soldiers and slave forces were especially important for the triumvirs: with the soldiers and slaves' main grievances resolved, Sextus' military power was permanently neutered.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|pp=20–21}} After celebrations for this agreement, Antony departed for the east on 2 October 39&nbsp;BC.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=21}}

=== Renewal of the triumvirate ===

==== Antony in the east ====
While Antony was in Italy, his lieutenant [[Publius Ventidius]] scored major victories against the Parthian invasion of Asia Minor: he defeated Labienus' forces and presumably had him killed. He also won the [[Battle of Amanus Pass]] against Phranipates, the Parthian [[satrap]] of Syria, killing the satrap and forcing the Parthians to retreat beyond the [[Euphrates]]. All of these victories were won before the autumn of 39&nbsp;BC.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=21}}

Antony wintered in Athens and returned eastward in the spring of 38&nbsp;BC. With the defence of the provinces largely complete, he prioritised reorganisations in the eastern provinces and client states. Among other boundary adjustments, he gave Cleopatra portions of eastern Cilicia and Cyprus with which to harvest timber to build a fleet. He also started to publicly identify with the god [[Dionysus]].{{sfn|Pelling|1996|pp=21–22}} But before he moved further east he was drawn back to [[Brundisium]] by Octavian to discuss a worsening situation in Italy; when Octavian did not arrive promptly, he issued a public rebuke and sailed east for Syria, where he found Ventidius' victories uninterrupted.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=23}} Ventidius was relieved of command by Antony and then returned to Rome to celebrate a triumph on 27 November 38&nbsp;BC before dying shortly thereafter.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=24}}

==== Octavian in the west ====
The agreement between Sextus Pompey and Octavian, without Antony's presence to balance the two, started to break down in autumn 39&nbsp;BC. That winter, the famine in Italy and pirate raids on grain ships continued. One of Sextus' admirals also defected to Octavian, giving Octavian back the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, along with three legions and sixty ships. Sextus, outraged, declared war.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=24}}

Two large naval battles were fought in the spring of 38&nbsp;BC near [[Cumae]] and near [[Messina|Messana]]. Both resulted in victories for Sextus, but he did not exploit his advantage and allowed Octavian to retire to [[Campania]]. Antony likely sought to maintain the power balance between both Octavian and Sextus for his own advantage. Octavian now requested some support after these defeats. To preserve the balance of power, Antony prepared to move west and provide support. There also was a rebellion in Gaul, which Agrippa put down by the end of 38&nbsp;BC. Agrippa, loyal to Octavian and in light of Octavian's inglorious defeat, tactfully went without a triumph.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=25}}

==== Treaty of Tarentum ====
In the spring of 37&nbsp;BC, Antony sailed for Italy with 300 ships. Denied entrance at Brundisium (the townsfolk suspected an invasion), he docked at Tarentum instead. Octavian travelled there to meet him. Negotiations dragged on until late July or early August. Antony apparently had to be persuaded by his wife Octavia to support Octavian against Sextus.<ref>{{harvnb|Pelling|1996|p=26|ps=, citing {{harvnb|Plut. ''Ant''.|loc=35}}, among others.}}</ref>

They agreed to strip Sextus of his augurate and future consulship. Octavian would wait a year to attack Sextus and would receive 120 ships from Antony in exchange for 20,000 men and 1,000 elite troops.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=26}} The triumvirate also had uncomfortably expired at the end of 38&nbsp;BC. Normal republican practice had magistrates abdicate their offices at the close of their terms; the triumvirs' terms had ended, but they had not abdicated. Nor were any successors appointed. Regardless, the legal position of the triumvirs was of little practical relevance. Making a show of constitutionalism, the triumvirate was then renewed by law for another five years, to expire on the last day of 33&nbsp;BC.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|pp=26–27}}

=== Parthia and Sicily, 36&nbsp;BC ===
[[Image:Denarius Sextus Pompeius-Scilla.jpg|thumb|[[Denarius]] of Sextus Pompey, minted for his victory over [[Augustus|Octavian]]'s fleet. On the obverse is the Pharus of [[Messina]], on the reverse the monster [[Scylla]].]]

Preparations for war continued apace. Agrippa, serving as consul in 37&nbsp;BC, built a large harbour (the ''[[portus Julius]]'') to train and supply troops against Sextus in Sicily.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=27}} In the east, Roman client [[Herod the Great|Herod]] retook most of Judaea; even better for the Romans, the Parthian threat disappeared amid a dynastic struggle when [[Orodes II]] abdicated in favour of his chosen successor [[Phraates IV]], who promptly murdered his father, all of his brothers, and his own son, precipitating a revolt.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=28}}

Amid a general reorganisation of the east which again strengthened client kingdoms – among a number of changes, Cleopatra received [[Crete]] and [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]], – Antony fathered a son with Cleopatra and publicly acknowledged his paternity of two twins born in 40&nbsp;BC. This may have been related to strengthening Antony and Cleopatra's positions in Egypt and building popular support there; even if so, the relationship was unpopular in Italy and Antony should have known this.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=30}}

==== Parthian campaign ====

Antony demanded the return of Crassus' eagles from Phraates; Phraates, needing to ensure his own position, refused.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=31}} Antony struck north towards [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenia]], where he was joined by detachments from allied kings and a Roman governor. With sixteen legions and many auxiliaries, he drove south into Persia.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=32}} Moving quickly without his siege engines, he arrived to Phraata, the Parthian capital, but then discovered that his slow-moving siege engines had been intercepted and destroyed. He was then abandoned by [[Artavasdes II of Armenia|Artavasdes]], the Armenian king; Antony, while successful in some defences, was unable to effectively counter the swift Parthian cavalry.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=33}}

Abandoning the siege, he was forced into a difficult retreat with few supplies and harried by Parthian archers. Over 27 days, the army returned after a famous display of resilience and valour, to Armenia. Reaching an agreement with Artavasdes, Antony continued to retreat through the winter until he reached [[Cappadocia]].{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=33}} In total, he lost around a third of his entire army.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=34}}

The failure of the Parthian campaign fatally damaged Antony's military prestige and power. If it had been successful, it would clearly placed him above Octavian; but after its failure, Antony's fortunes turned for the worse.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=34}}

==== Sicily ====
[[File:S Pompée aureus Sicile C des M.jpg|thumb|Sextus Pompey, depicted on an [[aureus]] minted {{Circa|36&nbsp;BC}}.]]
[[File:War with Sextus Pompeius part 2 en.png|thumb|Troop movements during the joint campaign against Sextus.]]

Agrippa prepared exhaustively for Octavian's campaign against Sicily.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=34}} Octavian also was able to secure support from Lepidus in Africa, who possibly had plans of his own. In July 36&nbsp;BC, Octavian and Lepidus launched a three-pronged attack on Sicily with Octavian's forces landing in the north and east while Lepidus landed in the south.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=34}}

Initially, Octavian's naval forces were beset by storms. Lepidus' forces, however, successfully effected a landing in his theatre and placed one of Sextus' lieutenants under siege in [[Lilybaeum]]. In the north and east, there were naval battles: Octavian was personally defeated off [[Taormina|Tauromenium]] while Agrippa was victorious off [[Milazzo|Mylae]]. Even so, Sextus' forces were stretched thin and Octavian was able to effect landings of 21 legions onto the island. A decisive naval battle ended the campaign, with Agrippa defeating Sextus near [[Battle of Naulochus|Naulochus]] on 3 September 36&nbsp;BC. Sextus, able to muster only 17 ships, fled for Antony in the east.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=35}}

Lepidus, buoyed by victory, attempted to suborn Octavian's troops. After accepting the surrender of Sextus Pompey's legions, he attempted to negotiate with Octavian to exchange Sicily and Africa for his old provinces of Narbonensis and Spain. Octavian, walking into Lepidus' camp almost unaccompanied, secured the loyalty of the soldiers; defeated, Lepidus was then stripped of membership in the triumvirate and his provincial commands. Kept in his property, life, and the title of ''[[pontifex maximus]]'', Lepidus was forced into exile and retirement.{{sfn|Pelling|1996|p=36}}