Editing Saturn (section)

== Physical characteristics ==
[[File:Saturn compared to Earth and the Moon.png|alt=Refer to caption|left|thumb|Size of Saturn compared to Earth and Earth's Moon]]
Saturn is a [[gas giant]], composed predominantly of hydrogen and helium. It lacks a definite surface, though it is likely to have a solid core.<ref name=melosh2011/> The planet's rotation makes it an [[oblate spheroid]]—a ball [[flattening|flattened]] at the [[geographical pole|poles]] and [[equatorial bulge|bulging]] at the [[equator]]. Its equatorial radius is more than 10% larger than the polar radius: 60,268&nbsp;km versus 54,364&nbsp;km (37,449&nbsp;mi versus 33,780&nbsp;mi).<ref name="fact" /> Jupiter, [[Uranus]], and [[Neptune]], the other giant planets in the Solar System, are less oblate. The combination of the bulge and the rotation rate means that the effective surface gravity along the equator, {{Val|8.96|u=m/s2}}, is 74% of what it is at the poles and is lower than the surface gravity of Earth. However, the equatorial [[escape velocity]], nearly {{Val|36|u=km/s}}, is much higher than that of Earth.<ref name=Gregersen2010>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ptLFDN0z8gQC&pg=PA119 |title=Outer Solar System: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and the Dwarf Planets |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |editor1-first=Erik |editor1-last=Gregersen |page=119 |year=2010 |isbn=978-1615300143 |access-date=17 February 2018 |archive-date=10 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610170554/https://books.google.com/books?id=ptLFDN0z8gQC&pg=PA119 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Saturn is the only planet of the Solar System that is less dense than water—about 30% less.<ref name=preserve/> Although Saturn's [[planetary core|core]] is considerably denser than water, the average [[relative density|specific density]] of the planet is {{val|0.69|u=g/cm3}}, because of the atmosphere. Jupiter has 318 times [[Earth mass|Earth's mass]],<ref name="Jupiter fact"/> and Saturn is 95 times Earth's mass.<ref name="fact"/> Together, Jupiter and Saturn hold 92% of the total planetary mass in the Solar System.<ref name=ssr152_1_423/>

=== Internal structure ===
[[File:Saturn diagram.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Diagram of Saturn, to scale|left]]Despite consisting mostly of hydrogen and helium, most of Saturn's mass is not in the [[gas]] [[phase (matter)|phase]], because hydrogen becomes a [[ideal solution|non-ideal liquid]] when the density is above {{val|0.01|u=g/cm3}}, which is reached at a radius containing 99.9% of Saturn's mass. The temperature, pressure, and density inside Saturn all rise steadily toward the core, which causes hydrogen to be a metal in the deeper layers.<ref name=ssr152_1_423/>

Standard planetary models suggest that the interior of Saturn is similar to that of Jupiter, having a small rocky core surrounded by hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of various [[Volatile (astrogeology)|volatiles]].<ref name=guillot_et_al2009/> Analysis of the distortion shows that Saturn is substantially more centrally condensed than [[Jupiter]] and therefore contains much more material denser than [[hydrogen]] near its center. Saturn's central regions are about 50% hydrogen by mass, and Jupiter's are about 67% hydrogen.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saturn - The interior {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Saturn-planet/The-interior |access-date=14 April 2022 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

This core is similar in composition to Earth, but is more dense. The examination of Saturn's [[gravitational moment]], in combination with physical models of the interior, has allowed constraints to be placed on the mass of Saturn's core. In 2004, scientists estimated that the core must be 9–22 times the mass of Earth,<ref name="science305_5689_1414" /><ref name="apj609_2_1170" /> which corresponds to a diameter of about {{Convert|25000|km|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A383960 |title=Saturn |publisher=BBC |access-date=19 July 2011 |date=2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110101024556/http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A383960 |archive-date=1 January 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, measurements of Saturn's rings suggest a much more diffuse core, with a mass equal to about 17 Earths and a radius equal to about 60% of Saturn's entire radius.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mankovich |first1=Christopher R. |last2=Fuller |first2=Jim |title=A diffuse core in Saturn revealed by ring seismology |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-021-01448-3 |journal=Nature Astronomy |year=2021 |volume=5 |issue=11 |pages=1103–1109 |doi=10.1038/s41550-021-01448-3 |arxiv=2104.13385 |bibcode=2021NatAs...5.1103M |s2cid=233423431 |access-date=22 August 2021 |archive-date=20 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210820195416/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-021-01448-3 |url-status=live }}</ref> This is surrounded by a thicker, liquid [[metallic hydrogen]] layer, followed by a liquid layer of helium-saturated [[molecular hydrogen]], which gradually transitions to a gas as altitude increases. The outermost layer spans about {{Convert|1000|km|abbr=on}} and consists of gas.<ref name="faure_mensing2007" /><ref name="NMM Saturn" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.windows2universe.org/saturn/interior/S_int_structure_overview.html |title=Structure of Saturn's Interior |publisher=Windows to the Universe |access-date=19 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917140427/http://www.windows2universe.org/saturn/interior/S_int_structure_overview.html |archive-date=17 September 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Saturn has a hot interior, reaching {{Convert|11700|C}} at its core, and radiates 2.5 times more energy into space than it receives from the Sun. Jupiter's [[thermal energy]] is generated by the [[Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism]] of slow [[gravitational compression]]; but such a process alone may not be sufficient to explain heat production for Saturn, because it is less massive. An alternative or additional mechanism may be the generation of heat through the "raining out" of droplets of helium deep in Saturn's interior. As the droplets descend through the lower-density hydrogen, the process releases heat by [[friction]] and leaves Saturn's outer layers depleted of helium.<ref name=de_pater_lissauer2010/><ref name=nasa_saturn/> These descending droplets may have accumulated into a helium shell surrounding the core.<ref name=guillot_et_al2009/> Rainfalls of [[diamond]]s have been suggested to occur within Saturn, as well as in Jupiter<ref name="SC-20131009">{{cite news |last=Kramer |first=Miriam |title=Diamond Rain May Fill Skies of Jupiter and Saturn |url=https://www.space.com/23135-diamond-rain-jupiter-saturn.html |date=9 October 2013 |work=[[Space.com]] |access-date=27 August 2017 |archive-date=27 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827171415/https://www.space.com/23135-diamond-rain-jupiter-saturn.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[ice giant]]s Uranus and Neptune.<ref name="WP-20170825">{{cite news |last=Kaplan |first=Sarah |title=It rains solid diamonds on Uranus and Neptune |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2017/08/25/it-rains-solid-diamonds-on-uranus-and-neptune/ |date=25 August 2017 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=27 August 2017 |archive-date=27 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827011901/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2017/08/25/it-rains-solid-diamonds-on-uranus-and-neptune/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Atmosphere ===
The outer atmosphere of Saturn contains 96.3% molecular hydrogen and 3.25% helium by volume. The proportion of helium is significantly deficient compared to the abundance of this element in the Sun.<ref name=guillot_et_al2009/> The quantity of elements heavier than helium ([[metallicity]]) is not known precisely, but the proportions are assumed to match the primordial abundances from the [[formation of the Solar System]]. The total mass of these heavier elements is estimated to be 19–31 times the mass of Earth, with a significant fraction located in Saturn's core region.<ref name="science286" />

Trace amounts of ammonia, [[acetylene]], [[ethane]], [[propane]], [[phosphine]], and [[methane]] have been detected in Saturn's atmosphere.<ref name="baas15_831" /><ref name="cain2009_24029" /><ref name="pfsaa2008" /> The upper clouds are composed of ammonia crystals, while the lower level clouds appear to consist of either [[ammonium hydrosulfide]] ({{chem2|NH4SH}}) or water.<ref name="martinez20050905" /> [[Ultraviolet radiation]] from the Sun causes methane [[photolysis]] in the upper atmosphere, leading to a series of [[hydrocarbon]] chemical reactions with the resulting products being carried downward by [[eddies]] and [[diffusion]]. This [[photochemical cycle]] is modulated by Saturn's annual seasonal cycle.<ref name=pfsaa2008/> ''Cassini'' observed a series of cloud features found in northern latitudes, nicknamed the "String of Pearls". These features are cloud clearings that reside in deeper cloud layers.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Cassini Image Shows Saturn Draped in a String of Pearls |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/cassini/media/cassini-20061011a.html |publisher=Carolina Martinez, NASA |date=10 November 2006 |access-date=3 March 2013 |archive-date=1 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501174037/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/cassini/media/cassini-20061011a.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Cloud layers ====
[[File:Saturn Storm.jpg|thumb|A global storm girdles the planet in 2011. The storm passes around the planet, such that the storm's head (bright area) passes its tail.|left]]

Saturn's atmosphere exhibits a banded pattern similar to Jupiter's, but Saturn's bands are much fainter and are much wider near the equator. The nomenclature used to describe these bands is the same as on Jupiter. Saturn's finer cloud patterns were not observed until the flybys of the ''[[Voyager Space Probe|Voyager]]'' spacecraft during the 1980s. Since then, Earth-based [[telescope|telescopy]] has improved to the point where regular observations can be made.<ref name=emp105_2_143/>

The composition of the clouds varies with depth and increasing pressure. In the upper cloud layers, with temperatures in the range of 100–160&nbsp;K and pressures extending between 0.5–2 [[Bar (unit)|bar]], the clouds consist of ammonia ice. Water [[ice cloud]]s begin at a level where the pressure is about 2.5 bar and extend down to 9.5 bar, where temperatures range from 185 to 270&nbsp;K. Intermixed in this layer is a band of ammonium hydrosulfide ice, lying in the pressure range 3–6 bar with temperatures of 190–235&nbsp;K. Finally, the lower layers, where pressures are between 10 and 20 bar and temperatures are 270–330&nbsp;K, contains a region of water droplets with ammonia in aqueous solution.<ref name=dougherty_esposito2009/>

Saturn's usually bland atmosphere occasionally exhibits long-lived ovals and other features common on Jupiter. In 1990, the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] imaged an enormous white cloud near Saturn's equator that was not present during the ''Voyager'' encounters, and in 1994 another smaller storm was observed. The 1990 storm was an example of a [[Great White Spot]], a short-lived phenomenon that occurs once every Saturnian year, roughly every 30 Earth years, around the time of the northern hemisphere's [[summer solstice]].<ref name=icarus176_1_155/> Previous Great White Spots were observed in 1876, 1903, 1933, and 1960, with the 1933 storm being the best observed.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-link=Patrick Moore |editor1-last=Moore |editor1-first=Patrick |title=1993 Yearbook of Astronomy |location=London |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |date=1992 |first1=Mark |last1=Kidger |chapter=The 1990 Great White Spot of Saturn |pages=176–215|bibcode=1992ybas.conf.....M }}</ref> The latest giant storm was observed in 2010. In 2015, researchers used [[Very Large Array]] telescope to study Saturnian atmosphere, and reported that they found "long-lasting signatures of all mid-latitude giant storms, a mixture of equatorial storms up to hundreds of years old, and potentially an unreported older storm at 70°N".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Cheng |last2=de Pater |first2=Imke |last3=Moeckel |first3=Chris |last4=Sault |first4=R. J. |last5=Butler |first5=Bryan |last6=deBoer |first6=David |last7=Zhang |first7=Zhimeng |title=Long-lasting, deep effect of Saturn's giant storms |journal=Science Advances |date=11 August 2023 |volume=9 |issue=32 |pages=eadg9419 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.adg9419 |pmid=37566653 |pmc=10421028 |bibcode=2023SciA....9G9419L }}</ref>

The winds on Saturn are the second fastest among the Solar System's planets, after Neptune's. ''Voyager'' data indicate peak easterly winds of {{convert|500|m/s|km/h|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Voyager Summary 1">{{cite web |title=Voyager Saturn Science Summary |url=http://www.solarviews.com/eng/vgrsat.htm |first=Calvin J. |last=Hamilton |access-date=5 July 2007 |date=1997 |publisher=Solarviews |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926211656/http://www.solarviews.com/eng/vgrsat.htm |archive-date=26 September 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In images from the ''[[Cassini–Huygens|Cassini]]'' spacecraft during 2007, Saturn's northern hemisphere displayed a bright blue hue, similar to Uranus. The color was most likely caused by [[Rayleigh scattering]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/cassini/multimedia/pia09188.html |title=Saturn's Strange Hexagon |access-date=6 July 2007 |date=27 March 2007 |last=Watanabe |first=Susan |publisher=NASA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100116155833/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/cassini/multimedia/pia09188.html |archive-date=16 January 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Thermography]] has shown that Saturn's south pole has a warm [[polar vortex]], the only known example of such a phenomenon in the Solar System.<ref name=MCP>{{cite web |url=http://www.mcpstars.org/node/353 |title=Warm Polar Vortex on Saturn |date=2007 |publisher=Merrillville Community Planetarium |access-date=25 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921212018/http://www.mcpstars.org/node/353 |archive-date=21 September 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Whereas temperatures on Saturn are normally −185&nbsp;°C, temperatures on the vortex often reach as high as −122&nbsp;°C, suspected to be the warmest spot on Saturn.<ref name=MCP/>

==== Hexagonal cloud patterns ====
{{main|Saturn's hexagon}}
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| direction         = horizontal
| total_width       = 400
| image1            = Rotatingsaturnhexagon.gif
| image2            = Looking saturn in the eye.jpg
| image3            = |thumb
| caption3          = Hexagonal storm pattern around the north pole of Saturn
| footer            = Saturn's north and south pole in [[infrared]]
}}

{{Anchor|North pole hexagonal cloud pattern|South pole vortex}}A persisting [[hexagon]]al wave pattern around the north polar vortex in the atmosphere at about 78°N was first noted in the ''Voyager'' images.<ref>{{cite journal |bibcode=1988Icar...76..335G |doi=10.1016/0019-1035(88)90075-9 |title=A hexagonal feature around Saturn's North Pole |date=1988 |page=335 |author=Godfrey, D. A. |volume=76 |journal=Icarus |issue=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Ground-based observations of Saturn's north polar SPOT and hexagon |first4=P. |last4=Laques |first3=F. |last3=Colas |first2=J. |last2=Lecacheux |journal=Science |display-authors=1 |first1=A. |last1=Sanchez-Lavega |volume=260 |issue=5106 |date=1993 |pmid=17838249 |doi=10.1126/science.260.5106.329 |bibcode=1993Sci...260..329S |pages=329–32|s2cid=45574015 }}</ref><ref name="NYT-20140806">{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |author-link=Dennis Overbye |title=Storm Chasing on Saturn |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/06/science/space/storm-chasing-on-saturn.html |date=6 August 2014 |work=[[New York Times]] |access-date=6 August 2014 |archive-date=12 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712004804/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/06/science/space/storm-chasing-on-saturn.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The sides of the hexagon are each about {{Convert|14500|km|mi|-2|abbr=on}} long, which is longer than the diameter of the Earth.<ref name="Hexagon ref">{{cite news |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna34352533 |title=New images show Saturn's weird hexagon cloud |publisher=NBC News |date=12 December 2009 |access-date=29 September 2011 |archive-date=21 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021075355/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/34352533 |url-status=live }}</ref> The entire structure rotates with a period of {{RA|10|39|24}} (the same period as that of the planet's radio emissions) which is assumed to be equal to the period of rotation of Saturn's interior.<ref name=science247_4947_1206/> The hexagonal feature does not shift in longitude like the other clouds in the visible atmosphere.<ref name=pss57_14_1671/> The pattern's origin is a matter of much speculation. Most scientists think it is a [[standing wave]] pattern in the atmosphere. Polygonal shapes have been replicated in the laboratory through differential rotation of fluids.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/news060515-17 |last1=Ball |first1=Philip |title=Geometric whirlpools revealed |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |date=19 May 2006|s2cid=129016856 |doi-access=free }} Bizarre geometric shapes that appear at the center of swirling vortices in planetary atmospheres might be explained by a simple experiment with a bucket of water but correlating this to Saturn's pattern is by no means certain.</ref><ref name=labmodel>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2009.10.022 |display-authors=1 |last1=Aguiar |first1=Ana C. Barbosa |last2=Read |first2=Peter L. |last3=Wordsworth |first3=Robin D |title=A laboratory model of Saturn's North Polar Hexagon |volume=206 |issue=2 |date=April 2010 |pages=755–763 |last4=Salter |first4=Tara |last5=Hiro Yamazaki |first5=Y. |journal=Icarus |bibcode=2010Icar..206..755B}} Laboratory experiment of spinning disks in a liquid solution forms vortices around a stable hexagonal pattern similar to that of Saturn's.</ref>

[[Hubble Space Telescope|HST]] imaging of the south polar region indicates the presence of a [[jet stream]], but no strong polar vortex nor any hexagonal standing wave.<ref>{{Cite journal |display-authors=1 |author=Sánchez-Lavega, A. |author2=Pérez-Hoyos, S. |author3=French, R. G. |url=http://aas.org/archives/BAAS/v34n3/dps2002/10.htm |title=Hubble Space Telescope Observations of the Atmospheric Dynamics in Saturn's South Pole from 1997 to 2002 |journal=Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society |volume=34 |page=857 |access-date=6 July 2007 |date=8 October 2002 |bibcode=2002DPS....34.1307S |archive-date=30 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100630162647/http://aas.org/archives/BAAS/v34n3/dps2002/10.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> [[NASA]] reported in November 2006 that ''Cassini'' had observed a "[[hurricane]]-like" storm locked to the south pole that had a clearly defined [[eyewall]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA09187 |title=NASA catalog page for image PIA09187 |access-date=23 May 2007 |publisher=NASA Planetary Photojournal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111109044235/http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA09187 |archive-date=9 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6135450.stm?lsm |title=Huge 'hurricane' rages on Saturn |work=BBC News |date=10 November 2006 |access-date=29 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803115422/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6135450.stm?lsm |archive-date=3 August 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Eyewall clouds had not previously been seen on any planet other than Earth. For example, images from the ''[[Galileo (spacecraft)|Galileo]]'' spacecraft did not show an eyewall in the [[Great Red Spot]] of Jupiter.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/news/press-release-details.cfm?newsID=703 |title=NASA Sees into the Eye of a Monster Storm on Saturn |publisher=NASA |date=9 November 2006 |access-date=20 November 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080507154317/http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/news/press-release-details.cfm?newsID=703 |archive-date=7 May 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The south pole storm may have been present for billions of years.<ref name="spole"/> This vortex is comparable to the size of Earth, and it has winds of 550&nbsp;km/h.<ref name="spole">{{Cite APOD | title=A Hurricane Over the South Pole of Saturn | date=13 November 2006 | access-date=1 May 2013}}</ref>

=== Magnetosphere ===
{{Main|Magnetosphere of Saturn}}
[[File:Hubble sees a flickering light display on Saturn.jpg|left|thumb|Auroral lights at Saturn's north pole]]
Saturn has an intrinsic [[magnetic field]] that has a simple, symmetric shape—a magnetic [[dipole]]. Its strength at the equator—0.2&nbsp;[[Gauss (unit)|gauss]] (20&nbsp;[[microtesla|μT]])—is approximately one twentieth of that of the field around Jupiter and slightly weaker than Earth's magnetic field.<ref name="mag" /> As a result, Saturn's [[magnetosphere]] is much smaller than Jupiter's.<ref name="mag 2">{{cite web |url=http://library.thinkquest.org/C005921/Saturn/satuAtmo.htm |title=Saturn: Atmosphere and Magnetosphere |publisher=Thinkquest Internet Challenge |access-date=15 July 2007 |last=McDermott |first=Matthew |date=2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020053039/http://library.thinkquest.org/C005921/Saturn/satuAtmo.htm |archive-date=20 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

When ''[[Voyager 2]]'' entered the magnetosphere, the [[solar wind]] pressure was high and the magnetosphere extended only 19 Saturn radii, or 1.1&nbsp;million km (684,000&nbsp;mi),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/saturn_magnetosphere.html |title=Voyager – Saturn's Magnetosphere |publisher=NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory |date=18 October 2010 |access-date=19 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319151942/http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/saturn_magnetosphere.html |archive-date=19 March 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> although it enlarged within several hours, and remained so for about three days.<ref name="atkinson2010" /> Most probably, the magnetic field is generated similarly to that of Jupiter—by currents in the liquid metallic-hydrogen layer called a metallic-hydrogen dynamo.<ref name="mag 2" /> This magnetosphere is efficient at deflecting the [[solar wind]] particles from the Sun. The moon Titan orbits within the outer part of Saturn's magnetosphere and contributes plasma from the [[ion]]ized particles in Titan's outer atmosphere.<ref name="mag">{{cite journal |display-authors=1 |author=Russell, C. T. |author2=Luhmann, J. G. |date=1997 |url=http://www-ssc.igpp.ucla.edu/personnel/russell/papers/sat_mag.html |title=Saturn: Magnetic Field and Magnetosphere |journal=Science |volume=207 |issue=4429 |pages=407–10 |access-date=29 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927165242/http://www-ssc.igpp.ucla.edu/personnel/russell/papers/sat_mag.html |archive-date=27 September 2011 |url-status=live |bibcode=1980Sci...207..407S |doi=10.1126/science.207.4429.407 |pmid=17833549 |s2cid=41621423 }}</ref> Saturn's magnetosphere, like [[Earth's magnetic field|Earth's]], produces [[aurora]]e.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.windows2universe.org/saturn/upper_atmosphere.html |title=Saturn Magnetosphere Overview |author=Russell, Randy |publisher=Windows to the Universe |date=3 June 2003 |access-date=19 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110906031014/http://www.windows2universe.org/saturn/upper_atmosphere.html |archive-date=6 September 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>