Editing Samarkand (section)

==History==
{{More citations needed|section|date=November 2022}}

===Early history===
{{see also|Timeline of Samarkand}}

Along with [[Bukhara]],<ref>Vladimir Babak, Demian Vaisman, Aryeh Wasserman, ''Political organization in Central Asia and Azerbaijan: sources and documents'', p.&nbsp;374</ref> Samarkand is one of the oldest inhabited cities in [[Central Asia]], prospering from its location on the trade route between China and Europe. There is no direct evidence of when it was founded. Researchers at the Institute of Archaeology of Samarkand date the city's founding to the 8th–7th centuries BC.

[[Archaeology|Archaeological]] excavations conducted within the city limits (Syob and midtown) as well as suburban areas (Hojamazgil, Sazag'on) unearthed 40,000-year-old evidence of human activity, dating back to the [[Upper Paleolithic]]. A group of [[Mesolithic]] (12th–7th millennia BC) archaeological sites were discovered in the suburbs of Sazag'on-1, Zamichatosh, and Okhalik. The Syob and Darg'om [[canal]]s, supplying the city and its suburbs with water, appeared around the 7th–5th centuries BC (early [[Iron Age]]).

From its earliest days, Samarkand was one of the main centres of [[Sogdia|Sogdian]] civilization. By the time of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] dynasty of Persia, the city had become the capital of the Sogdian [[satrapy]].

===Hellenistic period===
[[File:Afrasiyab ruins in Samarkand.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|right|Ancient city walls of Samarkand, 4th century BC]]
[[File:Daniël de Blieck - Alexander Slaying Cleitus.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|''[[Alexander the Great]] Slaying [[Cleitus the Black|Cleitus]] in Samarkand'', by [[Daniël de Blieck]].<br>[[Ferens Art Gallery]], Hull.]]
[[Alexander the Great]] conquered Samarkand in 329 BC. The city was known as '''Maracanda''' (Μαράκανδα) by the Greeks.<ref>''Columbia-Lippincott Gazetteer'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1972 reprint) p.&nbsp;1657</ref> Written sources offer small clues as to the subsequent system of government.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wood |first=Frances |title=The Silk Road: two thousand years in the heart of Asia |year=2002 |location=London}}</ref> They mention one Orepius who became ruler "not from ancestors, but as a gift of Alexander."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shichkina |first=G.V. |title=Ancient Samarkand: capital of Soghd |journal=Bulletin of the Asia Institute |year=1994 |volume=8 |page=83}}</ref>

While Samarkand suffered significant damage during Alexander's initial conquest, the city recovered rapidly and flourished under the new Hellenic influence. There were also major new construction techniques. Oblong bricks were replaced with square ones and superior methods of [[masonry]] and [[plastering]] were introduced.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shichkina |first=G.V. |title=Ancient Samarkand: capital of Soghd |journal=Bulletin of the Asia Institute |year=1994 |volume=8 |page=86}}</ref>

Alexander's conquests introduced classical Greek culture into Central Asia and for a time, Greek aesthetics heavily influenced local artisans. This Hellenistic legacy continued as the city became part of various successor states in the centuries following Alexander's death, the Greek [[Seleucid Empire]], [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]], and [[Kushan Empire]] (even though the [[Yuezhi|Kushana]] themselves originated in Central Asia). After the Kushan state lost control of Sogdia during the 3rd century AD, Samarkand went into decline as a centre of economic, cultural, and political power. It did not significantly revive until the 5th century.

===Sasanian era===
Samarkand was conquered by the Persian [[Sasanians]] c. 260 AD. Under Sassanian rule, the region became an essential site for [[Manichaeism]] and facilitated the dissemination of the religion throughout Central Asia.<ref name="Dumper, Stanley 2007 319">{{cite book |last=Dumper, Stanley |title=Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia |year=2007 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=California |pages=319–320}}</ref>

===Hephthalites and Turkic Khaganate era===
Between AD 350 and 375, Samarkand was conquered by the nomadic tribes of [[Xionites]], the origin of which remains controversial.<ref>Grenet Frantz, Regional interaction in Central Asia and northwest India in the Kidarite and Hephthalites periods in Indo-Iranian languages and peoples. Edited by Nicholas Sims-Williams. Oxford university press, 2003. Р.219–220</ref> The resettlement of nomadic groups to Samarkand confirms archaeological material from the 4th century. The culture of nomads from the Middle [[Syrdarya]] basin is spreading in the region.<ref>Buryakov Y.F. Iz istorii arkheologicheskikh rabot v zonakh oroshayemogo zemledeliya Uzbekistana // Arkheologicheskiye raboty na novostroykakh Uzbekistana. Tashkent, 1990. pp.&nbsp;9–10.</ref> Between 457 and 509, Samarkand was part of the [[Kidarite]] state.<ref>Etienne de la Vaissiere, Sogdian traders. A history. Translated by James Ward. Brill. Leiden. Boston, 2005, pp.&nbsp;108–111.</ref>
[[File:Turkish officers during a audience with king Varkhuman of Samarkand. 648-651 CE, Afrasiyab, Samarkand.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Western Turks|Turkic officers]] during an audience with king [[Varkhuman]] of Samarkand. 648–651 CE, [[Afrasiyab (Samarkand)|Afrasiyab murals]], Samarkand.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Baumer |first1=Christoph |title=History of Central Asia, The: 4-volume set |date=18 April 2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-83860-868-2 |page=243 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DhiWDwAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA243}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grenet |first1=Frantz |date=2004 |title=Maracanda/Samarkand, une métropole pré-mongole |journal=Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales |volume=5/6 |page=Fig. B |url=https://www.cairn.info/journal-annales-2004-5-page-1043.htm}}</ref>]]

After the [[Hephthalites]] ("White Huns") conquered Samarkand, they controlled it until the [[Göktürks]], in an alliance with the Sassanid Persians, won it at the [[Battle of Bukhara]], c. 560 AD.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bivar |first=A.D.H. |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hephthalites |title=Encyclopedia Iranica, Vol. XII, Fasc. 2 |publisher=London et al. |pages=198–201}}</ref>

In the middle of the 6th century, a Turkic state was formed in Altai, founded by the Ashina dynasty. The new state formation was named the [[First Turkic Khaganate|Turkic Khaganate]] after the people of the Turks, which were headed by the ruler – the Khagan. From 557 to 561, the [[Hephthalites]] empire was defeated by the joint actions of the Turks and Sassanids, which led to the establishment of a common border between the two empires.<ref>History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, AD 250 to 750. Vol. 3. Unesco, 1996. p.&nbsp;332</ref>

In the early Middle Ages, Samarkand was surrounded by four rows of defensive walls and had four gates.<ref>Belenitskiy A.M., Bentovich I.B., Bolshakov O.G. Srednevekovyy gorod Sredney Azii. L., 1973.</ref>

An ancient Turkic burial with a horse was investigated on the territory of Samarkand. It dates back to the 6th century.<ref>
Sprishevskiy V.I. Pogrebeniye s konem serediny I tysyacheletiya n.e., obnaruzhennoye okolo observatorii Ulugbeka. // Tr. Muzeya istorii narodov Uzbekistana. T.1.- Tashkent, 1951.</ref>

During the period of the ruler of the Western Turkic Khaganate, [[Tong Yabghu Qaghan]] (618–630), family relations were established with the ruler of Samarkand – Tong Yabghu Qaghan gave him his daughter.<ref>Klyashtornyy S. G., Savinov D. G., Stepnyye imperii drevney Yevrazii. Sankt-Peterburg: Filologicheskiy fakul'tet SPbGU, 2005 god, s. 97</ref>

Some parts of Samarkand have been Christian since the 4th century. In the 5th century, a [[Nestorian]] chair was established in Samarkand. At the beginning of the 8th century, it was transformed into a Nestorian metropolitanate.<ref>Masson M.Ye., Proiskhozhdeniye dvukh nestorianskikh namogilnykh galek Sredney Azii // Obshchestvennyye nauki v Uzbekistane, 1978, №10, p.&nbsp;53.</ref> Discussions and polemics arose between the Sogdian followers of [[Christianity]] and [[Manichaeism]], reflected in the documents.<ref>Sims-Wlliams Nicholas, A Christian sogdian polemic against the manichaens // Religious themes and texts of pre-Islamic Iran and Central Asia. Edited by Carlo G. Cereti, Mauro Maggi and Elio Provasi. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 2003, pp.&nbsp;399–407</ref>

===Early Islamic era===
[[File:Coin of Sogdian ruler Turgar, Ikhshid of Samarkand, Penjikent, 8th century CE (obverse and reverse), Tajikistan National Museum of Antiquities (319).jpg|thumb|Coin of [[Sogdia]]n ruler [[Turgar]], last [[Ikhshid]] of Samarkand, [[Panjakent|Penjikent]], 8th century CE, [[National Museum of Antiquities of Tajikistan]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Tadjikistan : au pays des fleuves d'or |date=2021 |publisher=Musée Guimet |location=Paris |isbn=978-9461616272 |page=152}}</ref>]]
The armies of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] under [[Qutayba ibn Muslim]] captured the city from the [[Tang dynasty]] c. 710 CE.<ref name="Dumper, Stanley 2007 319"/> During this period, Samarkand was a diverse religious community and was home to a number of religions, including [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]], [[Manichaeism]], [[Judaism]], and [[Nestorian Christianity]], with most of the population following Zoroastrianism.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dumper, Stanley |title=Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia |year=2007 |location=California}}</ref>

Qutayba generally did not settle Arabs in Central Asia; he forced the local rulers to pay him tribute but largely left them to their own devices. Samarkand was the major exception to this policy: Qutayba established an Arab [[garrison]] and Arab governmental administration in the city, its Zoroastrian [[fire temple]]s were razed, and a [[mosque]] was built.<ref name="Wellhausen437438">{{cite book |last1=Wellhausen |first1=J. |author-link=Julius Wellhausen |editor1-last=Weir |editor1-first=Margaret Graham |title=The Arab Kingdom and its Fall |date=1927 |publisher=University of Calcutta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qxPKpCcVOdcC |pages=437–438 |isbn=9780415209045 |access-date=2019-05-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421054204/https://books.google.com/books?id=qxPKpCcVOdcC |archive-date=2019-04-21 |url-status=live}}</ref> Much of the city's population converted to Islam.<ref>{{cite book |last=Whitfield |first=Susan |author-link=Susan Whitfield |title=Life Along the Silk Road |year=1999 |publisher=University of California Press |location=California |page=33}}</ref>

As a long-term result, Samarkand developed into a center of Islamic and Arabic learning.<ref name="Wellhausen437438"/> At the end of the 740s, a [[Abbasid dynasty|movement]] of those dissatisfied with the power of the [[Umayyad dynasty|Umayyads]] emerged in the Arab Caliphate, led by the Abbasid commander [[Abu Muslim]], who, after the victory of the uprising, became the governor of Khorasan and Maverannahr (750–755). He chose Samarkand as his residence. His name is associated with the construction of a multi-kilometer defensive wall around the city and the palace.<ref>Bartold V. V., Abu Muslim//Akademik V. V. Bartol'd. Sochineniya. Tom VII. Moskva: Nauka, 1971</ref>

Legend has it that during [[Abbasid]] rule,<ref>Quraishi, Silim "A survey of the development of papermaking in Islamic Countries", ''Bookbinder'', 1989 (3): 29–36.</ref> the secret of [[papermaking]] was obtained from two [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] prisoners from the [[Battle of Talas]] in 751, which led to the foundation of the first [[paper mill]] in the Islamic world at Samarkand. The invention then spread to the rest of the Islamic world and thence to Europe.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

[[File:Dinar of al-Mu'tazz, AH 253.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Gold dinar]] of caliph [[al-Mu'tazz]], minted at Samarkand in [[Hijri year|AH]] 253 (867 CE). His reign marks the apogee of the [[Anarchy at Samarra|decline of the Caliphate]]'s central authority]]
Abbasid [[Anarchy at Samarra|control of Samarkand soon dissipated]] and was replaced with that of the [[Samanids]] (875–999), though the Samanids were still nominal vassals of the [[Abbasid caliph|Caliph]] during their control of Samarkand. Under Samanid rule the city became a capital of the Samanid dynasty and an even more important node of numerous trade routes. The Samanids were overthrown by the [[Karakhanids]] around 999. Over the next 200 years, Samarkand would be ruled by a succession of [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] tribes, including the [[Seljuqs]] and the [[Khwarazmshahs]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Dumper, Stanley |title=Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia |year=2007 |location=California |page=320}}</ref>

The 10th-century Persian author [[Istakhri]], who travelled in [[Transoxiana]], provides a vivid description of the natural riches of the region he calls "Smarkandian Sogd":
<blockquote>I know no place in it or in Samarkand itself where if one ascends some elevated ground one does not see greenery and a pleasant place, and nowhere near it are mountains lacking in trees or a dusty steppe... Samakandian Sogd... [extends] eight days travel through unbroken greenery and gardens... . The greenery of the trees and sown land extends along both sides of the river [Sogd]... and beyond these fields is pasture for flocks. Every town and settlement has a fortress... It is the most fruitful of all the countries of [[Allah]]; in it are the best trees and fruits, in every home are gardens, cisterns and flowing water.</blockquote>

===Karakhanid (Ilek-Khanid) period (11th–12th centuries)===
[[File:Shah-i-Zinda.jpg|thumb|Shah-i Zinda memorial complex, 11th–15th centuries]]

After the fall of the [[Samanids]] state in 999, it was replaced by the Qarakhanid State, where the Turkic Qarakhanid dynasty ruled.<ref name="ReferenceE">Kochnev B. D., Numizmaticheskaya istoriya Karakhanidskogo kaganata (991—1209 gg.). Moskva «Sofiya», 2006</ref> After the state of the Qarakhanids split into two parts, Samarkand became a part of the West [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karakhanid Khaganate]] and from 1040 to 1212 was its capital.<ref name="ReferenceE"/> The founder of the Western Qarakhanid Khaganate was Ibrahim Tamgach Khan (1040–1068).<ref name="ReferenceE"/> For the first time, he built a madrasah in Samarkand with state funds and supported the development of culture in the region. During his reign, a public hospital (bemoristan) and a madrasah were established in Samarkand, where medicine was also taught.

The memorial complex [[Shah-i-Zinda]] was founded by the rulers of the Karakhanid dynasty in the 11th century.<ref>Nemtseva, N.B., Shvab, IU. Ansambl Shah-i Zinda: istoriko-arkhitektymyi ocherk. Tashent: 1979.</ref>

The most striking monument of the Qarakhanid era in Samarkand was the palace of Ibrahim ibn Hussein (1178–1202), which was built in the citadel in the 12th century. During the excavations, fragments of monumental painting were discovered. On the eastern wall, a Turkic warrior was depicted, dressed in a yellow caftan and holding a bow. Horses, hunting dogs, birds and periodlike women were also depicted here.<ref>Karev, Yury. Qarakhanid wall paintings in the citadel of Samarqand: First report and preliminary observations in Muqarnas 22 (2005): 45–84.</ref>

===Mongol period===
[[File:Afrosiab (8145369219).jpg|thumb|left|Ruins of Afrasiab – ancient Samarkand destroyed by Genghis Khan.]]

The Mongols [[Siege of Samarkand (1220)|conquered Samarkand]] in 1220. [[Ata-Malik Juvayni|Juvayni]] writes that Genghis killed all who took refuge in the [[citadel]] and the mosque, pillaged the city completely, and [[conscription|conscripted]] 30,000 young men along with 30,000 craftsmen. Samarkand suffered at least one other Mongol sack by [[Baraq (Chagatai Khan)|Khan Baraq]] to get treasure he needed to pay an army. It remained part of the [[Chagatai Khanate]] (one of four Mongol successor realms) until 1370.

''[[The Travels of Marco Polo|The Travels]]'' of [[Marco Polo]], where Polo records his journey along the Silk Road in the late 13th century, describes Samarkand as "a very large and splendid city..."<ref>{{cite web |title=Samarkand Travel Guide |url=https://caravanistan.com/uzbekistan/center/samarkand/ |access-date=2021-03-20 |website=Caravanistan}}</ref>

The [[Yenisei]] area had [[Semu#Similar practices in other areas of the Mongol Empire|a community of weavers of Chinese origin]], and Samarkand and [[Outer Mongolia]] both had artisans of Chinese origin, as reported by [[Qiu Chuji|Changchun]].<ref name="Gernet1996">{{cite book |author=Jacques Gernet |title=A History of Chinese Civilization |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern |url-access=registration |date=31 May 1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-49781-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern/page/377 377]– |access-date=25 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160615032106/https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern |archive-date=15 June 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> After Genghis Khan conquered Central Asia, foreigners were chosen as governmental administrators; Chinese and Qara-Khitays (Khitans) were appointed as co-managers of gardens and fields in Samarkand, which Muslims were not permitted to manage on their own.<ref>{{cite book |title=E.J.W. Gibb memorial series |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=35pFAQAAIAAJ |year=1928 |page=451}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=E. Bretschneider |date=1888 |title=Mediæval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources |chapter=The Travels of Ch'ang Ch'un to the West, 1220–1223 recorded by his disciple Li Chi Ch'ang |url=https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/changchun.html |publisher=Barnes & Noble |pages=37–108 |access-date=2018-04-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180430220305/http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/changchun.html |archive-date=2018-04-30 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The khanate allowed the establishment of Christian bishoprics (see below).

===Timur's rule (1370–1405)===
[[File:Bibi-Khanym Mosque (8145400614).jpg|thumb|Bibi-Khanym Friday Mosque, 1399–1404]]
[[Ibn Battuta]], who visited in 1333, called Samarkand "one of the greatest and finest of cities, and most perfect of them in beauty." He also noted that the orchards were supplied water via ''[[noria]]s''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Battutah |first1=Ibn |title=The Travels of Ibn Battutah |date=2002 |publisher=Picador |location=London |isbn=9780330418799 |page=143}}</ref>

In 1365, a revolt against Chagatai Mongol control occurred in Samarkand.<ref>''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 15th Ed, p.&nbsp;204</ref> In 1370, the conqueror [[Timur]] (Tamerlane), the founder and ruler of the [[Timurid Empire]], made Samarkand his capital. Timur used various tools for legitimisation, including urban planning in his capital, Samarkand.<ref>Malikov Azim, The cultural traditions of urban planning in Samarkand during the epoch of Timur. In: Baumer, C., Novák, M. and Rutishauser, S., Cultures in Contact. Central Asia as Focus of Trade, Cultural Exchange and Knowledge Transmission. Harrassowitz. 2022, p.343</ref> Over the next 35 years, he rebuilt most of the city and populated it with great artisans and craftsmen from across the empire. Timur gained a reputation as a patron of the arts, and Samarkand grew to become the centre of the region of [[Transoxiana]]. Timur's commitment to the arts is evident in how, in contrast with the ruthlessness he showed his enemies, he demonstrated mercy toward those with special artistic abilities. The lives of artists, craftsmen, and [[architect]]s were spared so that they could improve and beautify Timur's capital.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

Timur was also directly involved in construction projects, and his visions often exceeded the technical abilities of his workers. The city was in a state of constant construction, and Timur would often order buildings to be done and redone quickly if he was unsatisfied with the results.<ref name="Marefat 1992 33–38">{{cite journal |last=Marefat |first=Roya |title=The Heavenly City of Samarkand |journal=The Wilson Quarterly |date=Summer 1992 |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=33–38 |jstor=40258334}}</ref> By his orders, Samarkand could be reached only by roads; deep ditches were dug, and walls {{cvt|5|mi|km|abbr=off|order=flip|0}} in circumference separated the city from its surrounding neighbors.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wood |first=Frances |title=The Silk Roads: two thousand ears in the heart of Asia |year=2002 |location=Berkeley |pages=136–7}}</ref> At this time, the city had a population of about 150,000.<ref name="ReferenceB">''Columbia-Lippincott Gazetteer'', p.&nbsp;1657</ref>

[[Henry III of Castile]]'s ambassador [[Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo]], who was stationed at Samarkand between 1403 and 1406, attested to the never-ending construction that went on in the city. "The Mosque which Timur had built seemed to us the noblest of all those we visited in the city of Samarkand."<ref>{{cite book |last=Le Strange |first=Guy (trans) |title=Clavijo: Embassy to Tamburlaine 1403–1406 |year=1928 |location=London |page=280}}</ref>

===[[Ulugbek|Ulugh Beg]]'s period (1409–1449)===
[[File:Ulugh Beg's Astronomic Observatory.jpg|thumb|left|Many prominent astronomers worked at [[Ulugh Beg Observatory|Ulugh Beg's observatory]], which contained this mural sextant, constructed in Samarkand during the 15th century.]]
Between 1417 and 1420, Timur's grandson [[Ulugh Beg]] built a [[madrasa]]h in Samarkand, which became the first building in the architectural ensemble of Registan. Ulugh Beg invited a large number of astronomers and mathematicians of the Islamic world to this madrasah. Under Ulugh Beg, Samarkand became one of the world centers of medieval science. In the first half of the 15th century, a whole scientific school arose around Ulugh Beg, uniting prominent astronomers and mathematicians including [[Jamshid al-Kashi]], [[Qāḍī Zāda al-Rūmī]], and [[Ali Qushji]]. Ulugh Beg's main interest in science was astronomy, and he constructed an observatory in 1428. Its main instrument was the [[Mural instrument|wall quadrant]], which was unique in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Ulugh_Beg/ |title=Ulugh Beg – Biography |website=Maths History}}</ref> It was known as the "Fakhri Sextant" and had a radius of 40 meters.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ulugh Beg |title=Dictionary of Scientific Biography}}</ref> Seen in the image on the left, the arc was finely constructed with a staircase on either side to provide access for the assistants who performed the measurements.

===16th–18th centuries===
In 1500, [[nomad]]ic [[Uzbeks|Uzbek]] warriors took control of Samarkand.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> The [[Shaybanids]] emerged as the city's leaders at or about this time. In 1501, Samarkand was finally taken by [[Muhammad Shaybani]] from the Uzbek dynasty of [[Shaybanid]]s, and the city became part of the newly formed “Bukhara Khanate”. Samarkand was chosen as the capital of this state, in which Muhammad Shaybani Khan was crowned. In Samarkand, Muhammad Shaybani Khan ordered to build a large madrasah, where he later took part in scientific and religious disputes. The first dated news about the Shaybani Khan madrasah dates back to 1504 (it was completely destroyed during the years of Soviet power). Muhammad Salikh wrote that Sheibani Khan built a madrasah in Samarkand to perpetuate the memory of his brother Mahmud Sultan.<ref name="ReferenceF">Mukminova R. G., K istorii agrarnykh otnosheniy v Uzbekistane XVI veke. Po materialam «Vakf-name». Tashkent. Nauka. 1966</ref>

Fazlallah ibn Ruzbihan {{Who|date=November 2022}} in "Mikhmon-namei Bukhara" expresses his admiration for the majestic building of the madrasah, its gilded roof, high hujras, spacious courtyard and quotes a verse praising the madrasah.<ref>Fazlallakh ibn Ruzbikhan Isfakhani. Mikhman-name-yi Bukhara (Zapiski bukharskogo gostya). M. Vostochnaya literatura. 1976, p.&nbsp;3</ref> Zayn ad-din Vasifi, who visited the Sheibani-khan madrasah several years later, wrote in his memoirs that the veranda, hall and courtyard of the madrassah are spacious and magnificent.<ref name="ReferenceF"/>

Abdulatif Khan, the son of Mirzo Ulugbek's grandson Kuchkunji Khan, who ruled in Samarkand from 1540 to 1551, was considered an expert in the history of Maverannahr and the Shibanid dynasty. He patronized poets and scientists. Abdulatif Khan himself wrote poetry under the literary pseudonym Khush.<ref>B.V. Norik. Rol' shibanidskikh praviteley v literaturnoy zhizni Maverannakhra XVI veka. Sankt-Peterburg: Rakhmat-name, 2008. p.&nbsp;233.</ref>

During the reign of the Ashtarkhanid [[Imam Quli Khan of Bukhara|Imam Quli Khan]] (1611–1642) famous architectural masterpieces were built in Samarkand. In 1612–1656, the governor of Samarkand, Yalangtush Bahadur, built a cathedral mosque, Tillya-Kari madrasah and Sherdor madrasah.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

[[Zarafshan Water Bridge]] is a brick bridge built on the left bank of the [[Zarafshan River]], 7–8&nbsp;km northeast of the center of Samarkand, built by [[Muhammad Shaybani|Shaibani Khan]] at the beginning of the 16th century.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://uzsmart.uz/encyclopedia/encyclopedia/66708.html|title= ZARAFSHON SUVAYIRGʻICH KOʻPRIGI |website= uzsmart.uz |accessdate= 2023-11-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.centralasia-travel.com/ru/countries/uzbekistan/places/most-sheybanixana |title= МОСТ ШЕЙБАНИ-ХАНА |website= www.centralasia-travel.com |accessdate= 2023-11-14}}</ref>

After an assault by the [[Afsharid dynasty|Afshar]] [[Shah]]anshah [[Nader Shah]], the city was abandoned in the early 1720s.<ref>''Britannica''. 15th Ed, p.&nbsp;204</ref> From 1599 to 1756, Samarkand was ruled by the [[Astrakhan Khanate|Ashtrakhanid]] branch of the [[Khanate of Bukhara]].
<gallery mode="packed" heights="120">
File:Rajasthan3.jpg|Ulugh Beg Madrasah
File:Rajasthan.jpg|Sher-Dor Madrasah
File:Registan Tillya-Kari madrasah2014.JPG|Tilya Kori Madrasah
Ulugh-beg Madrassa courtyard.JPG|Ulugh Beg Madrasah courtyard
File:Lion(or tiger) on the Sher-dor madrassa.JPG|Tiger on the Sher-Dor Madrasah [[iwan]]
</gallery>

===Second half of the 18th–19th centuries===
[[File:Mosque Hazrat-Hyzr (1).JPG|thumb|right|Khazrat Hizr mosque, 1854]]

From 1756 to 1868, it was ruled by the [[Manghud]] Emirs of [[Emirate of Bukhara|Bukhara]].<ref name="ReferenceA">''Columbia-Lippincott Gazetteer''. p.&nbsp;1657</ref> The revival of the city began during the reign of the founder of the Uzbek dynasty, the Mangyts, Muhammad Rakhim (1756–1758), who became famous for his strong-willed qualities and military art. Muhammad Rakhimbiy made some attempts to revive Samarkand.<ref>Materialy po istorii Sredney i Tsentral'noy Azii X—XIX veka. Tashkent: Fan, 1988, рр.&nbsp;270—271</ref>

===Russian Empire period===
{{See also|Russian Turkestan|Uzbeks#Russo-Soviet era}}
[[File:Самарканд - 6.jpg|thumb|Samarkand in 1890]]
The city came under [[imperial Russia]]n rule after the citadel had been taken by a force under Colonel [[Konstantin Petrovich von Kaufman]] in 1868. Shortly thereafter the small Russian garrison of 500 men were themselves [[Siege of Samarkand (1868)|besieged]]. The assault, which was led by Abdul Malik Tura, the rebellious elder son of the [[Emirate of Bukhara|Bukharan Emir]], as well as Baba [[Bey|Beg]] of [[Shahrisabz]] and Jura Beg of [[Kitab, Uzbekistan|Kitab]], was repelled with heavy losses. General [[Alexander Konstantinovich Abramov]] became the first Governor of the Military [[Okrug]], which the Russians established along the course of the [[Zeravshan River]] with Samarkand as the administrative centre. The Russian section of the city was built after this point, largely west of the old city.

In 1886, the city became the capital of the newly formed [[Samarkand Oblast]] of [[Russian Turkestan]] and regained even more importance when the [[Trans-Caspian railway]] reached it in 1888.

===Soviet period===
[[File:Samarqand.jpg|thumb|[[Downtown]] with Bibi-Khanym Mosque in 1990s]]
Samarkand was the capital of the [[Uzbek SSR]] from 1925 to 1930, before being replaced by [[Tashkent]]. During [[World War II]], after [[Nazi Germany]] [[Operation Barbarossa|invaded]] the [[Soviet Union]], a number of Samarkand's citizens were sent to [[Smolensk]] to [[Battle of Smolensk (1941)|fight the enemy]]. Many were [[German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war|taken captive or killed by the Nazis]].<ref name=Soldat>{{Cite web |title=Советское Поле Славы |url=https://www.soldat.ru/search/f_glory/soldiers.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413043841/http://www.soldat.ru/search/f_glory/soldiers.html |url-status=dead |archivedate=April 13, 2020 |website=www.soldat.ru}}</ref><ref name="BBC2017CentralAsians">{{cite news |author=Rustam Qobil |publisher=BBC |title=Why were 101 Uzbeks killed in the Netherlands in 1942? |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-39849088 |date=2017-05-09 |access-date=2017-05-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200330201803/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-39849088 |archive-date=2020-03-30 |url-status=live}}</ref> Additionally, thousands of refugees from the occupied western regions of the USSR fled to the city, and it served as one of the main hubs for the fleeing civilians in the [[Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic]] and the [[Soviet Union]] as a whole.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}
[[File:1872 Vereshchagin Triumphierend anagoria.JPG|thumb|upright=1.25|''Triumph'' by [[Vasily Vereshchagin]], depicting the Sher-Dor [[Madrasa]] in [[Registan]].]]
European study of the history of Samarkand began after the conquest of Samarkand by the Russian Empire in 1868. The first studies of the history of Samarkand belong to N. Veselovsky, V. Bartold and V. Vyatkin. In the Soviet period, the generalization of materials on the history of Samarkand was reflected in the two-volume ''History of Samarkand'' edited by the academician of Uzbekistan [[Ibrohim Moʻminov]].<ref>Montgomery David. Samarkand taarikhi (History of Samarkand) by I.M.Muminov, The American historical review, volume 81, no.8 (October 1976), pp.&nbsp;914–915</ref>

On the initiative of Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR I. Muminov and with the support of [[Sharof Rashidov|Sharaf Rashidov]], the 2500th anniversary of Samarkand was widely celebrated in 1970. In this regard, a monument to [[Ulugh Beg]] was opened, the Museum of the History of Samarkand was founded, and a two-volume history of Samarkand was prepared and published.<ref>Istoriya Samarkanda v dvukh tomakh. Pod redaktsiyey I. Muminova. Tashkent, 1970</ref><ref>Montgomery David, Review of Samarkand taarikhi by I. M. Muminov et al. // The American historical review, volume 81, no. 4 (October 1976)</ref>

After Uzbekistan gained independence, several monographs were published on the ancient and medieval history of Samarkand.<ref>Shirinov T.SH., Isamiddinov M.KH. Arkheologiya drevnego Samarkanda. Tashkent, 2007</ref><ref>Malikov A.M. Istoriya Samarkanda (s drevnikh vremen do serediny XIV veka). Tom. 1. Tashkent: Paradigma, 2017.</ref>