Editing Rosa Luxemburg (section)

=== Poland ===
==== Origins ====
[[File:Staszica 37 (Zamość).JPG|thumb|Luxemburg's birthplace in [[Zamość]], Poland]]
Róża Luksemburg, actual birth name Rozalia Luksenburg, was born on 5 March 1871 at 45 Ogrodowa Street (now 7a Kościuszko Street)<ref name="rory">{{cite web|url=https://www.praktykateoretyczna.pl/artykuly/rory-castle-you-alone-will-make-our-familys-name-famous-rosa-luxemburg-her-family-and-the-origins-of-her-polish-jewish-identity/|title=Rosa Luxemburg, Her Family and the Origins of her Polish-Jewish Identity|website=praktykateoretyczna.pl|access-date=2021-12-03|date=2013-06-16|first=Rory|last=Castle|publisher=Praktyka Teoretyczna}}</ref> in Zamość.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marxists.org/glossary/people/l/u.htm#luxemburg|title=Glossary of People: L|website=Marxists.org|access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.matrikel.uzh.ch/suche/search?cmd=D&theSame=13056&name=Luxemburg+Rosa|title=Matrikeledition|website=Matrikel.uzh.ch|access-date=22 February 2018|archive-date=6 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206123408/http://www.matrikel.uzh.ch/suche/search?cmd=D&theSame=13056&name=Luxemburg+Rosa|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Luxemburg family were [[History of Jews in Poland|Polish Jews]] living in the [[Congress Poland|Russian sector of Poland]]. She was the fifth and youngest child of [[Edward Luxemburg|Edward Eliasz Luxemburg]] and Lina Löwenstein. Her father Edward, like his father [[Abraham Luxemburg|Abraham]], supported the Jewish Reform movement. Luxemburg later stated that her father imparted an interest in [[liberalism|liberal]] ideas to her while her mother was religious and well-read with books kept at home.<ref name="Merrick">{{cite web|title=Rosa Luxemburg: A Socialist With a Human Face|last=Merrick|first=Beverly G.|work=Center for Digital Discourse and Culture at Virginia Tech University|url=http://www.cddc.vt.edu/feminism/Luxemburg.html|date=1998|access-date=18 May 2015|archive-date=2 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402161631/https://www.cddc.vt.edu/feminism/Luxemburg.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> As noted, the family moved to Warsaw in 1873.<ref name="nettl">J. P. Nettl, ''Rosa Luxemburg'', Oxford University Press, 1969, pp. 54–55.</ref> Polish and [[German language|German]] were spoken at home; Luxemburg also learned [[Russian language|Russian]].<ref name="Merrick"/> Although over time she became fluent in Russian and [[French language|French]], Polish remained Róża's first language with German also spoken fluently.<ref name="tych5" /><ref name="winkler" /><ref name="sprawaPL" /> Rosa was considered intelligent early on, writing letters to her family and impressing her relatives with recitals of poetry, including the Polish classic ''[[Pan Tadeusz]]''.<ref name="rory" />

Rory Castle writes: <blockquote>From her grandfather and father [Rosa] inherited the belief that she was a Pole first and a Jew second, with her emotional connection to the Polish language and culture and her passionate opposition to Tsarism being of central importance. Although her parents were religious, they did not consider themselves to be Jewish by nationality, rather 'Poles of the Mosaic persuasion'.<ref name="rory" /></blockquote> Castle also points out that more recent research into the Luxemburg family and her early years shows that <blockquote>Rosa Luxemburg gained a lot more from her family than has previously been understood by her biographers ... [not only] in terms of her education, financial support and assistance during her frequent incarcerations, but also in terms of her identity and politics. Her family was a closely knitted support network, even when its members were spread out across Europe. This solid foundation, which supported and encouraged her at every step, gave Luxemburg the intellectual and personal confidence to go out and attempt to change the world.<ref name="rory" /></blockquote> From her private correspondence it is especially clear that she remained very close with her family throughout the years, despite being separated by borders and spread out across countries.<ref name="rory" />

==== Education and activism ====
[[File:Rosa Luxemburg, zwölfjährig.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Rosa Luxemburg at age 12, {{circa|1883}}]]

In 1884, she enrolled at an all-girls' [[gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]] (secondary school) in Warsaw, which she attended until 1887.<ref name=RLlautHDK>{{cite web|title=Luxemburg, Rosa|publisher=Karl Dietz Verlag, Berlin & Bundesstiftung zur Aufarbeitung der SED-Diktatur, Berlin|work=Handbuch der Deutschen Kommunisten|url=https://www.bundesstiftung-aufarbeitung.de/wer-war-wer-in-der-ddr-%2363%3B-1424.html?ID=4740|author1=Weber, Hermann|author2-link=Andreas Herbst|author2=Herbst, Andreas|access-date=16 January 2019|author1-link=Hermann Weber}}</ref> The Second Women's Gymnasium was a school that only rarely accepted Polish applicants and acceptance of Jewish children was even more exceptional. At this school, the children were only permitted to speak Russian.,<ref name="Luxemburg2017">{{cite book|editor-first1=Luise |editor-last1=Kautsky |title=Rosa Luxemburg: Briefe aus dem Gefängnis: Denken und Erfahrungen der internationalen Revolutionärin|work=Information is taken not from the letters themselves but from a lengthy biographical essay which appears at the end of the volume|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3JFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT55|year=2017|publisher=Musaicum Books|isbn=978-80-7583-324-2|page=55}}</ref> but Róża attended secret circles in which the works of Polish poets and writers were studied; officially this was forbidden due to the policy of [[Russification of Poles during the Partitions|Russification against Poles]] being pursued in the Russian Empire at the time.<ref name="tych1">{{cite book|last=Tych|first=Feliks|date=2018|editor-last=Wielgosz|editor-first=Przemysław|title=O rewolucji: 1905, 1917|publisher=Instytut Wydawniczy "Książka i Prasa"|page=13|chapter=Przedmowa|isbn=978-8365304599}}</ref> Nonetheless, from 1886, Luxemburg belonged to the illegal Polish left-wing [[Proletariat (party)|Proletariat Party]] which had been founded in 1882, anticipating the left-wing Russian parties by twenty years. She began political activities by organising a [[general strike]], which ended with four of the Proletariat Party leaders being put to death and the party being disbanded, though the remaining members, including Luxemburg, kept meeting in secret. In 1887, she passed her [[matura]] ([[secondary school]] examinations).

[[File:Rosa Luxemburg's dissertation.jpg|thumb|Inaugural dissertation for the award of a doctorate in political science from the Faculty of Political Science of the University of Zurich. In the collection of the [[Jewish Museum of Switzerland|Jewish Museum Switzerland]].]] Wanted by the tsarist police because of her activity in Proletariat, Rosa hid in the countryside, working as private tutor at a {{lang|pl|[[Manor houses of Polish nobility|dworek]]}}.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tych|first=Feliks|date=2018|editor-last=Wielgosz|editor-first=Przemysław|title=O rewolucji: 1905, 1917|publisher=Instytut Wydawniczy "Książka i Prasa"|pages=13–14|chapter=Przedmowa|isbn=978-8365304599}}</ref> In order to escape detention, she fled to [[Switzerland]] through the "green border" in 1889.<ref name="tych2">{{cite book|last=Tych|first=Feliks|date=2018|editor-last=Wielgosz|editor-first=Przemysław|title=O rewolucji: 1905, 1917|publisher=Instytut Wydawniczy "Książka i Prasa"|page=14|chapter=Przedmowa|isbn=978-8365304599}}</ref> She attended the [[University of Zurich]] (as did the socialists [[Anatoly Lunacharsky]] and [[Leo Jogiches]]), where she studied philosophy, history, politics, economics, zoology<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |last=Blixer |first=Rene |date=2019-01-10 |title=Rosa's secret collection |url=https://www.exberliner.com/berlin/rosas-secret-collection/ |access-date=2023-07-02 |website=Exberliner |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |title=Rosa Luxemburg: A Thousand More Things |url=https://rosalux.nyc/events/rosa-luxemburg-a-thousand-more-things/ |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=rosalux.nyc |language=en}}</ref> and mathematics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zych |first1=Marcin |last2=Dolatowski |first2=Jakub |last3=Kirpluk |first3=Izabella |last4=Werblan-Jakubiec |first4=Hanna |date=2023-06-03 |title=A "plant love story": The lost (and found) private herbarium of the radical socialist revolutionary Rosa Luxemburg |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q120172000 |journal=Plants People Planet |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=852–858 |doi=10.1002/PPP3.10396|s2cid=259066901 |doi-access=free }}</ref> She specialised in {{lang|de|Staatswissenschaft}} (political science), economic and [[stock exchange]] crises, and the [[Middle Ages]]. The University of Zurich awarded her a [[Doctor of Law]] degree and her [[thesis|doctoral dissertation]] "The Industrial Development of [[Poland]]" ({{lang|de|Die Industrielle Entwicklung Polens}}) was officially presented in the spring of 1897 and was published by Duncker and Humblot in Leipzig in 1898. An oddity in Zurich, she was one of the first women in the world, and of course the first Polish woman, to be awarded a doctorate in political economy<ref name="tych2" /><ref name="winkler">{{cite web |url=https://ciekawostkihistoryczne.pl/2019/06/24/roza-luksemburg-pierwsza-polka-z-doktoratem-z-ekonomii/ |title=Róża Luksemburg. Pierwsza Polka z doktoratem z ekonomii |last=Winkler |first=Anna |date=2019-06-24 |website=CiekawostkiHistoryczne.pl |access-date=2021-07-21 |language=pl }}</ref>

In 1893, with Leo Jogiches and [[Julian Marchlewski]] (alias Julius Karski), Luxemburg founded the newspaper {{lang|pl|Sprawa Robotnicza}} (''The Workers' Cause'') which opposed the [[Nationalism|nationalist]] policies of the [[Polish Socialist Party]]. Luxemburg believed that an independent Poland could arise and exist only through socialist revolutions in Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia. She maintained that the struggle should be against [[capitalism]], not just for Polish independence. Her position of denying a national right of [[self-determination]] provoked a philosophic disagreement with [[Vladimir Lenin]]. She and Leo Jogiches co-founded the [[Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania]] (SDKPiL) party, after merging in Congress Poland's and Lithuania's social democratic organisations. Despite living in Germany for most of her adult life, Luxemburg was the principal theoretician of the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland (SDKP, later the SDKPiL) and led the party in a partnership with Jogiches, its principal organiser.<ref name="tych2" /> She remained sentimental towards Polish culture, her favourite poet was [[Adam Mickiewicz]], and she vehemently opposed the [[Germanisation of Poles during the Partitions|Germanisation of Poles]] in the [[Prussian Partition]]; in 1900 she published a brochure against this in [[Poznań]].<ref name="tych5">{{cite book|last=Tych|first=Feliks|date=2018|editor-last=Wielgosz|editor-first=Przemysław|title=O rewolucji: 1905, 1917|publisher=Instytut Wydawniczy "Książka i Prasa"|page=18|chapter=Przedmowa|isbn=978-8365304599}}</ref> Earlier, in 1893, she also wrote against the Russification of Poles by the Russian Empire's absolutist government.<ref name="sprawaPL">{{cite journal|last1=Luksemburg|first1=Róża|date=July 1893|title=O wynaradawianiu (Z powodu dziesięciolecia rządów jen.-gub. Hurki)|journal=Sprawa Robotnicza}}</ref>

==== 1905 revolution ====
{{see also|Revolution in the Kingdom of Poland (1905–1907)|1905 Russian Revolution}}
After the [[Revolution in the Kingdom of Poland (1905–1907)|1905 revolution]] broke out, against the advice of her Polish and German comrades, Luxemburg left for Warsaw. If she were to be recognised, tsarist authorities would imprison her, but the October/November political strike, part of the [[1905 Russian Revolution|upheaval in Russia]] with particularly active elements in Congress Poland, convinced Róża that she was needed in Warsaw instead of Berlin.<ref name="tych3">{{cite book|last=Tych|first=Feliks|date=2018|editor-last=Wielgosz|editor-first=Przemysław|title=O rewolucji: 1905, 1917|publisher=Instytut Wydawniczy "Książka i Prasa"|page=15|chapter=Przedmowa|isbn=978-8365304599}}</ref> She arrived in Warsaw on 30 December, thanks to her German friend Anna Matschke's passport, and joined Jogiches, who had returned to Warsaw a month earlier, also on a false passport. They lived together in a [[Pension (lodging)|pension]] at the corner of Jasna and Świętokrzyska streets from where they wrote for the SDKPiL's illegally published paper {{lang|pl|Czerwony Sztandar}} (The Red Banner).<ref>{{cite book|last=Tych|first=Feliks|date=2018|editor-last=Wielgosz|editor-first=Przemysław|title=O rewolucji: 1905, 1917|publisher=Instytut Wydawniczy "Książka i Prasa"|page=16|chapter=Przedmowa|isbn=978-8365304599}}</ref> Luxemburg was one of the first writers to notice the 1905 revolution's potential for democratisation within the Russian Empire. In the years 1905-1906 alone, she wrote in Polish and German over 100 articles, brochures, appeals, texts, and speeches about the revolution.<ref name="tych3" /> Although only the closest friends and comrades of Jogiches and Luxemburg knew of their return to the country, the [[Okhrana]], thanks to a [[mole (espionage)|mole]] recruited by the tsarist authorities within the senior SDKPiL leadership, came to arrest them on 4 March 1906.<ref name="tych4">{{cite book|last=Tych|first=Feliks|date=2018|editor-last=Wielgosz|editor-first=Przemysław|title=O rewolucji: 1905, 1917|publisher=Instytut Wydawniczy "Książka i Prasa"|page=17|chapter=Przedmowa|isbn=978-8365304599}}</ref>

They held her prisoner first at the [[ratusz]] jail, then at [[Pawiak prison]] and later at the Tenth Pavilion of the [[Warsaw Citadel]]. Luxemburg continued to write for the SDKPiL in secret while in custody, with her works smuggled out of the compound.<ref name="tych4" /> After two officers of the Okhrana were bribed by her relatives, a temporary release on bail was secured for her on 28 June 1906 for health reasons until the court trial.<ref name="winkler" /> In early August from [[Saint Petersburg]], she left for [[Repino, Saint Petersburg|Kuokkala]], which was then part of the [[Grand Duchy of Finland]], an autonomous part of the Russian Empire. From there, in the middle of September, she managed to secretly flee to Germany.<ref name="tych4" />