Editing Richard II of England (section)

== Early reign ==
=== Peasants' Revolt ===
[[File:Death of Wat Tyler Froissart.jpg|thumb|right|Richard II watches [[Wat Tyler]]'s death and addresses the peasants in the background: taken from the [[Froissart of Louis of Gruuthuse (BnF Fr 2643-6)|Gruuthuse manuscript]] of [[Froissart]]'s ''Chroniques'' (c.&nbsp;1475)]]

Whereas the poll tax of 1381 was the spark of the [[Peasants' Revolt]], the root of the conflict lay in tensions between peasants and landowners precipitated by the economic and demographic consequences of the [[Black Death in England|Black Death]] and [[Second plague pandemic|subsequent outbreaks]] of the plague.<ref name="Tuck"/> The rebellion started in [[Kent]] and [[Essex]] in late May, and on 12 June, bands of peasants gathered at [[Blackheath, London|Blackheath]] near London under the leaders [[Wat Tyler]], [[John Ball (priest)|John Ball]], and [[Jack Straw (rebel leader)|Jack Straw]]. John of Gaunt's [[Savoy Palace]] was burnt down. The [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], [[Simon Sudbury]], who was also [[Lord Chancellor]], and [[Lord High Treasurer]] [[Robert Hales (knight)|Robert Hales]] were both killed by the rebels,<ref>Harriss (2005), pp.&nbsp;230–231.</ref> who were demanding the complete abolition of [[serfdom]].<ref name="H231">Harriss (2005), p.&nbsp;231.</ref> The King, sheltered within the [[Tower of London]] with his councillors, agreed that the Crown did not have the forces to disperse the rebels and that the only feasible option was to negotiate.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;67.</ref>

It is unclear how much Richard, who was still only fourteen years old, was involved in these deliberations, although historians have suggested that he was among the proponents of negotiations.<ref name="Tuck"/> The King set out by the [[River Thames]] on 13 June, but the large number of people thronging the banks at [[Greenwich]] made it impossible for him to land, forcing him to return to the Tower.<ref>McKisack (1959), p.&nbsp;409.</ref> The next day, Friday, 14 June, he set out by horse and met the rebels at [[Mile End]].<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;68.</ref> He agreed to the rebels' demands, but this move only emboldened them; they continued their looting and killings.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;68–70.</ref> Richard met Wat Tyler again the next day at [[Smithfield, London|Smithfield]] and reiterated that the demands would be met, but the rebel leader was not convinced of the King's sincerity. The King's men grew restive, an altercation broke out, and [[William Walworth]], the [[Lord Mayor of London]], pulled Tyler down from his horse and killed him.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;70–71.</ref> The situation became tense once the rebels realised what had happened, but the King acted with calm resolve and, saying "I am your captain, follow me!", he led the mob away from the scene.{{Efn|It has been speculated that the whole incident surrounding the killing of Wat Tyler was in fact planned in advance by the council, in order to end the rebellion.<ref name="Tuck"/><ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;71–72.</ref>}} Walworth meanwhile gathered a force to surround the peasant army, but the King granted clemency and allowed the rebels to disperse and return to their homes.<ref>McKisack (1959), pp.&nbsp;413–414.</ref>

The King soon revoked the charters of freedom and pardon that he had granted, and as disturbances continued in other parts of the country, he personally went into Essex to suppress the rebellion. On 28 June at [[Billericay]], he defeated the last rebels in a small skirmish and effectively ended the Peasants' Revolt.<ref name="H231"/> In the following days rebel leaders, such as John Ball, were hunted down and executed. Despite his young age, Richard had shown great courage and determination in his handling of the rebellion. It is likely, though, that the events impressed upon him the dangers of disobedience and threats to royal authority, and helped shape the [[Absolute monarchy|absolutist]] attitudes to kingship that would later prove fatal to his reign.<ref name="Tuck"/>

=== Coming of age ===
[[File:Richard2 Anna.jpg|thumb|upright|Anne and Richard's coronation in the ''[[Liber Regalis]]'' of [[Westminster Abbey]]]]

It is only with the Peasants' Revolt that Richard starts to emerge clearly in the [[chronicle|annals]].<ref>McKisack (1959), p.&nbsp;424.</ref> One of his first significant acts after the rebellion was to marry [[Anne of Bohemia]], daughter of [[Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor]], on 20 January 1382.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;90. The marriage had been agreed upon as of 2 May 1381; Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;87.</ref> It had diplomatic significance; in the division of Europe caused by the [[Western Schism]], [[Bohemia]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]] were seen as potential allies against [[France in the Middle Ages|France]] in the ongoing Hundred Years' War.{{Efn|While both England and the Empire supported [[Pope Urban VI]] in Rome, the French sided with the [[Avignon Papacy]] of [[Antipope Clement VII|Clement VII]].<ref name="Tuck"/>}} Nonetheless, the marriage was not popular in England. Despite great sums of money awarded to the Empire, the political alliance never resulted in any military victories.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;94–95.</ref> Furthermore, the marriage was childless. Anne died from the plague in 1394, greatly mourned by her husband.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;225.</ref>

[[Michael de la Pole, 1st Earl of Suffolk|Michael de la Pole]] had been instrumental in the marriage negotiations;<ref name="Tuck"/> he had the King's confidence and gradually became more involved at court and in government as Richard came of age.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;117–120.</ref> De la Pole came from an upstart merchant family.{{Efn|A complaint in parliament claimed that he had been "raised from low estate to the rank of earl"<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;118.</ref>}} When Richard made him chancellor in 1383, and created him [[Earl of Suffolk]] two years later, this antagonised the more established nobility.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;117.</ref> Another member of the close circle around the King was [[Robert de Vere, Duke of Ireland|Robert de Vere, Earl of Oxford]], who in this period emerged as the King's [[favourite]].<ref>Harriss (2005), p.&nbsp;98.</ref> Richard's close friendship to de Vere was also disagreeable to the political establishment. This displeasure was exacerbated by the earl's elevation to the new title of [[Duke of Ireland]] in 1386.<ref>McKisack (1959), pp.&nbsp;425, 442–443.</ref> The chronicler [[Thomas Walsingham]] suggested the relationship between the King and de Vere was of a homosexual nature, due to a resentment Walsingham had toward the King.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;437.</ref>

Tensions came to a head over the approach to the war in France. While the court party preferred negotiations, Gaunt and Buckingham urged a large-scale campaign to protect English possessions.<ref name="Tuck"/> Instead, a so-called [[crusade]] led by [[Henry le Despenser]], [[Bishop of Norwich]], was dispatched, which failed miserably.<ref name="Tuck"/> Faced with this setback on the continent, Richard turned his attention instead towards France's ally, the [[Kingdom of Scotland]]. In 1385, the King himself led a [[English invasion of Scotland (1385)|punitive expedition to the north]],<ref>Muster of the 1385 army [https://books.google.com/books?id=vVFIAAAAYAAJ&q=archaeologia+1829 Ellis, Nicolas, Nicolas Harris, 'Richard II's army for Scotland, 1385', in ''Archaeologia'', vol. 22, (1829), 13–19].</ref> but the effort came to nothing, and the army had to return without ever engaging the Scots in battle.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;142–145.</ref> Meanwhile, only an uprising in [[Ghent]] prevented a French invasion of southern England.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;145–146.</ref> The relationship between Richard and his uncle Gaunt deteriorated further with military failure, and Gaunt left England to pursue his claim to the throne of [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]] in 1386 amid rumours of a plot against his person.<ref name="Tuck"/> With Gaunt gone, the unofficial leadership of the growing dissent against the King and his courtiers passed to Buckingham{{Spaced ndash}}who had by now been created Duke of Gloucester{{Spaced ndash}}and [[Richard Fitzalan, 4th Earl of Arundel]].<ref name="Tuck"/>

=== First crisis of 1386–1388 ===
[[File:Robert de Vere fleeing Radcot Bridge.jpg|thumb|right|[[Robert de Vere, Duke of Ireland|Robert de Vere]] fleeing the [[Battle of Radcot Bridge]], from the ''Chroniques'' of [[Jean Froissart]]]]

The threat of a French invasion did not subside, but instead grew stronger into 1386.<ref name="Tuck"/> At the parliament of October that year, Michael de la Pole{{Spaced ndash}}in his capacity of chancellor{{Spaced ndash}}requested taxation of an unprecedented level for the defence of the realm.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;157.</ref> Rather than consenting, the parliament responded by refusing to consider any request until the chancellor was removed.<ref>McKisack (1959), p.&nbsp;443.</ref> The parliament (later known as the [[Wonderful Parliament]]) was presumably working with the support of Gloucester and Arundel.<ref name="Tuck"/><ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;160.</ref> The King famously responded that he would not dismiss as much as a [[scullery maid|scullion]] from his kitchen at parliament's request.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;157–158.</ref> Only when threatened with deposition was Richard forced to give in and let de la Pole go.<ref>Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;158.</ref> A commission was set up to review and control royal finances for a year.<ref>Harriss (2005), p.&nbsp;459.</ref>

Richard was deeply perturbed by this affront to his royal prerogative, and from February to November 1387 went on a "gyration" (tour) of the country to muster support for his cause.<ref>Tuck (1985), p.&nbsp;189.</ref> By installing de Vere as [[Justice of Chester]], he began the work of creating a loyal military power base in [[Cheshire]].<ref>Goodman (1971), p.&nbsp;22.</ref> He also secured a legal ruling from [[Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales|Chief Justice]] [[Robert Tresilian]] that parliament's conduct had been unlawful and treasonable.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chrimes |first=S. B. |date=1956 |title=Richard II's questions to the judges |journal=[[Law Quarterly Review]] |volume=lxxii |pages=365–390}}</ref>

On his return to London, the King was confronted by Gloucester, Arundel and [[Thomas de Beauchamp, 12th Earl of Warwick]], who brought an [[Criminal appeal|appeal]]{{Efn|This "appeal"{{Spaced ndash}}which would give its name to the [[Lords Appellant]]{{Spaced ndash}}was not an appeal in the modern sense of an application to a higher authority. In medieval [[common law]] the appeal was a criminal charge, often one of treason.<ref name="Tuck"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=appeal, ''n.'' |url=http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50010618 |url-access=subscription |access-date=25 August 2008 |publisher=[[Oxford Dictionary of English]]}}</ref>}} of treason against de la Pole, de Vere, Tresilian, and two other loyalists: the mayor of London, [[Nicholas Brembre]], and [[Alexander Neville]], the [[Archbishop of York]].<ref>Goodman (1971), p.&nbsp;26.</ref> Richard stalled the negotiations to gain time, as he was expecting de Vere to arrive from Cheshire with military reinforcements.<ref name="S187">Saul (1997), p.&nbsp;187.</ref> The three peers then joined forces with Gaunt's son [[Henry Bolingbroke]], Earl of Derby, and [[Thomas de Mowbray, 1st Duke of Norfolk|Thomas de Mowbray, Earl of Nottingham]]{{Spaced ndash}}the group known to history as the [[Lords Appellant]]. On 20 December 1387 they intercepted de Vere at [[Battle of Radcot Bridge|Radcot Bridge]], where he and his forces were routed and he was obliged to flee the country.<ref>Goodman (1971), pp.&nbsp;129–130.</ref>

Richard now had no choice but to comply with the appellants' demands; Brembre and Tresilian were condemned and executed, while de Vere and de la Pole{{Spaced ndash}}who had by now also left the country<ref name="S187"/>{{Spaced ndash}}were sentenced to death ''in absentia'' at the [[Merciless Parliament]] in February 1388.{{Efn|Neville, as a man of the clergy, was deprived of his [[temporalities]], also ''in absentia''.<ref>Saul (1997), pp.&nbsp;192–193.</ref> The proceedings went further, and a number of Richard's chamber knights were also executed, among these Burley.<ref>McKisack (1959), p.&nbsp;458.</ref>}} The appellants had now succeeded completely in breaking up the circle of favourites around the King.<ref name="Tuck"/>