Editing Reggae (section)

==History==

===Precursors===

Reggae's direct origins are in the [[ska]] and [[rocksteady]] of 1960s Jamaica, strongly influenced by traditional Caribbean [[mento]] and [[calypso music]], as well as American [[jazz]] and [[rhythm and blues]]. Ska was originally a generic title for Jamaican music recorded between 1961 and 1967 and emerged from Jamaican R&B, which was based largely on American R&B and doo-wop.<ref>"Ska." ''Encyclopedia of Popular Music'', 4th ed. Ed. Colin Larkin. ''Oxford Music Online''. Oxford University Press. Web. 16 February 2016.</ref> Rastafari entered some countries primarily through reggae music; thus, the movement in these places is more stamped by its origins in reggae music and social milieu.<ref>Salter, Richard C.. "Sources and Chronology in Rastafari Origins". ''Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions'' 9.1 (2005): 5–31.</ref> The [[Rastafari movement]] was a significant influence on reggae, with [[Rastafarian|Rasta]] drummers like [[Count Ossie]] taking part in seminal recordings.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zqKqiSGzxQUC&pg=PA42 |title=Cut 'N' Mix: Culture, Identity, and Caribbean Music By Dick Hebdige |access-date=18 June 2013 |isbn=9780415058759 |last1=Hebdige |first1=Dick |year=1987 |publisher=Routledge |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101113902/https://books.google.com/books?id=zqKqiSGzxQUC&pg=PA42 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> One of the predecessors of reggae drumming is the [[Nyabinghi rhythm]], a style of ritual drumming performed as a communal meditative practice in the Rastafarian life.<ref>{{cite book|author=Leonard Joseph McCarthy |title=The significance of corporeal factors and choreographic rhythms in Jamaican popular music between 1957—1981 (Ska, Rocksteady, Reggae), with an historical and critical survey of all relevant literature dealing with Jamaican folk, religious and popular musics and dance |date=2007|page=151}}</ref>

In the latter half of the 20th century, [[Phonograph|phonograph records]] became of central importance to the Jamaican music industry, playing a significant cultural and economic role in the development of reggae music.<ref name="thevinylfactory.com">{{Cite web|url=http://thevinylfactory.com/features/from-the-vaults-the-20-best-reggae-7s-ever-made/|title=From the vaults: The 20 best reggae 7"s ever made – The Vinyl Factory|website=Thevinylfactory.com|language=en-US|access-date=17 March 2017|date=22 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318000346/http://thevinylfactory.com/features/from-the-vaults-the-20-best-reggae-7s-ever-made/|archive-date=18 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> "In the early 1950s, Jamaican entrepreneurs began issuing 78s"<ref name="thevinylfactory.com"/> but this format would soon be superseded by the 7" single, first released in 1949.<ref>{{cite news |last=Britt |first=Bruce |date=10 August 1989 |title=The 45-rpm single will soon be history |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=H1tWAAAAIBAJ&pg=6991%2C6756292 |newspaper=Spokesman-Review |agency=Los Angeles Daily News |page=C4 |access-date=31 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315061248/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=H1tWAAAAIBAJ&sjid=7u8DAAAAIBAJ&pg=6991%2C6756292 |archive-date=15 March 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1951 the first recordings of mento music were released as singles and showcased two styles of mento: an acoustic rural style, and a jazzy pop style.<ref>Garnice, Michael. "Bob Marley and the Wailers' Mento Roots." Beat 25.2 (2006): p.50.</ref> Other 7" singles to appear in Jamaica around this time were covers of popular American R&B hits, made by Kingston [[Sound system (Jamaican)|sound system]] operators to be played at public dances.<ref name="thevinylfactory.com"/> Meanwhile, Jamaican [[expatriate]]s started issuing 45s on small independent labels in the United Kingdom, many mastered directly from Jamaican 45s.<ref name="thevinylfactory.com"/>

Ska arose in Jamaican studios in the late 1950s, developing from this mix of American R&B, [[mento]] and [[calypso music]].<ref name=NiceupHistory>{{cite web |url=http://niceup.com/history/ja_music_59-73.html |title=History of Jamaican Music 1953–1973 |website=Niceup.com |access-date=18 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807120821/http://niceup.com/history/ja_music_59-73.html |archive-date=7 August 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Notable for its jazz-influenced horn riffs, ska is characterized by a quarter note [[walking bass]] line, guitar and piano [[On-beat|offbeats]], and a drum pattern with cross-stick snare and bass drum on the backbeat and open hi-hat on the offbeats. When Jamaica gained independence in 1962, ska became the music of choice for young Jamaicans seeking music that was their own. Ska also became popular among [[mod (subculture)|mods]] in Britain.

In the mid-1960s, ska gave rise to [[rocksteady]], a genre slower than ska featuring more romantic lyrics and less prominent horns.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://secure.pqarchiver.com/boston/doc/405360219.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Aug+10%2C+2000&author=Muther%2C+Christopher&pub=Boston+Globe&edition=&startpage=11&desc=THE+BEAT+GOES+ON+SKA+AND+REGGAE+SCENE+SERVES+UP+SOUNDS+TO+SUIT+EVERY+TASTE |title=The Beat Goes on Ska and Reggae Scene Serves up Sounds to Suit Every Taste |website=secure.pqarchiver.com |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422035344/https://secure.pqarchiver.com/boston/doc/405360219.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Aug+10%2C+2000&author=Muther%2C+Christopher&pub=Boston+Globe&edition=&startpage=11&desc=THE+BEAT+GOES+ON+SKA+AND+REGGAE+SCENE+SERVES+UP+SOUNDS+TO+SUIT+EVERY+TASTE |archive-date=22 April 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Theories abound as to why Jamaican musicians slowed the ska tempo to create rocksteady; one is that the singer [[Hopeton Lewis]] was unable to sing his hit song "Take It Easy" at a ska tempo.<ref name=NiceupHistory/> The name "rocksteady" was codified after the release of a single by [[Alton Ellis]]. Many rocksteady rhythms later were used as the basis of reggae recordings, whose slower tempos allowed for the "double skank" guitar strokes on the offbeat.

===Emergence in Jamaica===
Reggae developed from [[ska]] and [[rocksteady]] in the late 1960s. Larry And Alvin's "Nanny Goat" and the Beltones' "No More Heartaches" were among the songs in the genre. The beat was distinctive from rocksteady in that it dropped any of the pretensions to the smooth, soulful sound that characterized slick American R&B, and instead was closer in kinship to US southern funk, being heavily dependent on the rhythm section to drive it along. Reggae's great advantage was its almost limitless flexibility: from the early, jerky sound of Lee Perry's "People Funny Boy", to the uptown sounds of Third World's "Now That We've Found Love", it was an enormous leap through the years and styles, yet both are instantly recognizable as reggae.<ref>"Reggae." ''Encyclopedia of Popular Music'', 4th ed. Ed. Colin Larkin. ''Oxford Music Online''. Oxford University Press. Web. 16 February 2016.</ref>  The shift from rocksteady to reggae was illustrated by the organ [[Swung note|shuffle]] pioneered by Jamaican musicians like [[Jackie Mittoo]] and Winston Wright and featured in transitional singles "Say What You're Saying" (1968) by [[Eric "Monty" Morris]] and "People Funny Boy" (1968) by [[Lee "Scratch" Perry]].{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}

[[File:Jimmy_Cliff_-_Festival_du_Bout_du_Monde_2012_-_022.jpg|thumb|left|[[Jimmy Cliff]]]]

Early 1968 was when the first ''bona fide'' reggae records were released: "Nanny Goat" by [[Larry Marshall (singer)|Larry Marshall]] and "No More Heartaches" by the Beltones. That same year, the newest Jamaican sound began to spawn big-name imitators in other countries. American artist [[Johnny Nash]]'s 1968 hit "[[Hold Me Tight (Johnny Nash song)|Hold Me Tight]]" has been credited with first putting reggae in the American listener charts. Around the same time, reggae influences were starting to surface in [[rock music|rock]] and [[pop music]]; one example is 1968's "[[Ob-La-Di, Ob-La-Da]]" by [[the Beatles]].<ref>Kevin O'Brien Chang, 1998, ''Reggae Routes'', p. 44.</ref>

[[The Wailers (1963–1974 band)|The Wailers]], a band started by [[Bob Marley]], [[Peter Tosh]] and [[Bunny Wailer]] in 1963, is perhaps the most recognized band that made the transition through all three stages of early Jamaican popular music: ska, rocksteady and reggae. Over a dozen Wailers songs are based on or use a line from Jamaican mento songs. Other significant ska artists who made the leap to reggae include [[Prince Buster]], [[Desmond Dekker]], [[Ken Boothe]], and [[Millie Small]], best known for her 1964 blue-beat/ska [[cover version]] of "[[My Boy Lollipop]]" which was a smash hit internationally.<ref name="amg">{{cite web|url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/millie-small-mn0000489606/biography|title=Millie Small – Biography & History – AllMusic|website=[[AllMusic]]|access-date=9 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180308231443/https://www.allmusic.com/artist/millie-small-mn0000489606/biography|archive-date=8 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

Notable Jamaican producers influential in the development of ska into rocksteady and reggae include: [[Coxsone Dodd]], [[Lee "Scratch" Perry]], [[Leslie Kong]], [[Duke Reid]], [[Joe Gibbs (record producer)|Joe Gibbs]] and [[King Tubby]]. [[Chris Blackwell]], who founded [[Island Records]] in Jamaica in 1960,<ref>Sexton, Paul. "A Legend in His Own Time." Billboard – The International Newsweekly of Music, Video and Home Entertainment 113.39 (29 Sep 2001): p. C-8.</ref> relocated to England in 1962, where he continued to promote Jamaican music. He formed a partnership with [[Lee Gopthal]]'s [[Trojan Records]] in 1968, which released reggae in the UK until bought by Saga records in 1974.

===International popularity===
[[File:PeterToshWithRobbieShakespeare1978.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.75|Peter Tosh with Robbie Shakespeare, 1978]]
Reggae's influence bubbled to the top of the U.S. [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] charts in late 1972. First [[Three Dog Night]] hit No. 1 in September with a cover of [[the Maytones]]' version of "[[Black and White (Three Dog Night song)|Black and White]]". Then [[Johnny Nash]] was at No. 1 for four weeks in November with "[[I Can See Clearly Now]]". [[Paul Simon]]'s single "[[Mother And Child Reunion]]" – a track which he recorded in Kingston, Jamaica with [[Jimmy Cliff]]'s backing group – was ranked by Billboard as the No. 57 song of 1972.

In 1973, the film ''[[The Harder They Come]]'' starring [[Jimmy Cliff]] was released and introduced Jamaican music to cinema audiences outside Jamaica.<ref>Steffens, Roger. ‘The Harder They Come: 30 Years After.” The Beat 22.1 (2003): p. 36</ref> Though the film achieved cult status, its limited appeal meant that it had a smaller impact than [[Eric Clapton]]'s 1974 cover of Bob Marley's "[[I Shot the Sheriff]]" which made it onto the playlists of mainstream rock and pop radio stations worldwide. Clapton's "I Shot the Sheriff" used modern rock production and recording techniques and faithfully retained most of the original reggae elements; it was a breakthrough pastiche devoid of any parody and played an important part in bringing the music of Bob Marley to a wider rock audience.<ref name=NiceupHistory/> By the mid-1970s, authentic reggae dub plates and specials were getting some exposure in the UK on [[John Peel]]'s radio show, who promoted the genre for the rest of his career.<ref>Gaar, Gillian G. "The Beat goes on." Goldmine 38.14 (Dec 2012): p. 26-29</ref> Around the same time, British filmmaker [[Jeremy Marre]] documented the Jamaican music scene in ''Roots Rock Reggae'', capturing the heyday of [[Roots reggae]].<ref>RHYTHM OF RESISTANCE ROOTS, ROCK, REGGAE SALSA KONKOMBE
The Beat8.3 (1989): 59–62.</ref>

While the quality of Reggae records produced in Jamaica took a turn for the worse following the oil crisis of the 1970s, reggae produced elsewhere began to flourish.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120219/cleisure/cleisure4.html|title=Oil prices under threat|website=Jamaica-gleaner.com|language=en|access-date=17 March 2017|date=19 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318002454/http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120219/cleisure/cleisure4.html|archive-date=18 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="thevinylfactory.com"/> In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the UK [[punk rock]] scene flourished, and reggae was a notable influence. The DJ [[Don Letts]] would play reggae and punk tracks at clubs such as [[The Roxy (London)|The Roxy]]. Punk bands such as [[the Clash]], [[the Ruts]], [[the Members]] and [[the Slits]] played many reggae-influenced songs. Around the same time, reggae music took a new path in the UK; one that was created by the multiracial makeup of England's inner cities and exemplified by groups like [[Steel Pulse]], [[Aswad (band)|Aswad]] and [[UB40]], as well as artists such as [[Smiley Culture]] and [[Carroll Thompson]]. The Jamaican ghetto themes in the lyrics were replaced with UK [[inner city]] themes, and Jamaican [[patois]] became intermingled with [[Cockney]] slang. In South London around this time, a new subgenre of [[lovers rock]], was being created. Unlike the Jamaican music of the same name which was mainly dominated by male artists such as [[Gregory Isaacs]], the South London genre was led by female singers like Thompson and [[Janet Kay]]. The UK Lovers Rock had a softer and more commercial sound.Other reggae artists who enjoyed international appeal in the early 1980s include [[Third World (band)|Third World]], [[Black Uhuru]] and [[Sugar Minott]]. The Grammy Awards introduced the [[Grammy Award for Best Reggae Album]] category in 1985.

[[File:Ruhr Reggae Summer Mülheim 2014 Tanya Stephens 04.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.7|[[Tanya Stephens]] in 2014 at a German Reggae festival]]
Women also play a role in the reggae music industry personnel such as Olivia Grange, president of Specs-Shang Musik; Trish Farrell, president of Island/Jamaica; Lisa Cortes, president of Loose Cannon; Jamaican-American Sharon Gordon, who has worked in the independent reggae music industry.<ref>Oumano, E. (27 January 1996). Women increase number, scope of roles in reggae.''Billboard – the International Newsweekly of Music, Video and Home Entertainment, 108'', 1–1, 37.</ref>

=== Reggae heritage ===

Jamaican Prime Minister Bruce Golding made February 2008 the first annual Reggae Month in Jamaica. To celebrate, the Recording Industry Association of Jamaica (RIAJam) held its first Reggae Academy Awards on 24 February 2008. In addition, Reggae Month included a six-day Global Reggae conference, a reggae film festival, two radio station award functions, and a concert tribute to the late Dennis Brown, who Bob Marley cited as his favorite singer. On the business side, RIAJam held events focused on reggae's employment opportunities and potential international revenue. .<ref>Meschino, P. (15 March 2008). Music: Reggae – reclaiming reggae revenue. ''Billboard – the International Newsweekly of Music, Video and Home Entertainment, 120'', 36.</ref> Reggae Month 2019 in Jamaica was welcomed with multiple events ranging from corporate reggae functions to major celebrations in honour of Bob Marley's Birthday on 6 February to a tribute concert in honour of Dennis Brown on 24 February along with a sold-out concert by 2019 Reggae Grammy nominated artiste Protoje for his A Matter of Time Live held at Hope Gardens in Kingston on 23 February.

In November 2018 "reggae music of Jamaica" was added to the [[UNESCO]]'s [[UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists|Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity]] the decision recognised reggae's "contribution to international discourse on issues of injustice, resistance, love and humanity underscores the dynamics of the element as being at once cerebral, socio-political, sensual and spiritual."<ref name="unesco" />

==== {{anchor|cod reggae}}Cod reggae ====
The term '''cod reggae''' is popularly used to describe reggae done by non-Caribbean people, often in a disparaging manner because of perceived [[Authenticity in art|inauthenticity]]. [[Boy George]] has been described as “one of the great cod reggae artists of all time.”<ref name="g-cod">{{cite news |last=Haynes |first=Gavin |date=26 October 2018 |title=Cod complex: why Boy George is one of 'inauthentic' reggae's all-time greats |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2018/oct/26/cod-complex-why-boy-george-is-one-of-inauthentic-reggaes-all-time-greats |url-status=live |access-date=7 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001143327/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2018/oct/26/cod-complex-why-boy-george-is-one-of-inauthentic-reggaes-all-time-greats |archive-date=1 October 2019}}</ref>