Editing Reduplication (section)

===Form===
Reduplication is often described [[Phonology|phonologically]] in one of two ways: either (1) as reduplicated ''segments'' (sequences of [[consonants]]/[[vowels]]) or (2) as reduplicated ''[[Prosody (linguistics)|prosodic]] units'' ([[syllable]]s or [[mora (linguistics)|moras]]). In addition to phonological description, reduplication often needs to be described [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphologically]] as a reduplication of linguistic [[Constituent (linguistics)|constituents]] (i.e. [[Word (linguistics)|words]], [[Stem (linguistics)|stems]], [[Root (linguistics)|roots]]). As a result, reduplication is interesting theoretically as it involves the interface between phonology and morphology.

The ''base'' is the word (or part of the word) that is to be copied. The reduplicated element is called the '''''reduplicant''''', often abbreviated as ''<small>RED</small>'' or sometimes just ''R''.

In reduplication, the reduplicant is most often repeated only once. In some languages, it can occur more than once, resulting in a tripled form, and not a ''duple'' as in most reduplication. '''Triplication''' is the term for this phenomenon of copying two times.{{sfn|Gates|2016}} [[Pingelapese]] has both forms.{{sfn|Rehg|1981}}  In this article, English translations of words are shown in apostrophes:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Basic verb
! Reduplication
! Triplication
|-
| ''{{IPA|kɔul}}'' &nbsp;'to sing'
| ''{{IPA|kɔukɔul}}'' &nbsp;'singing'
| ''{{IPA|kɔukɔukɔul}}'' &nbsp;'still singing'
|-
| ''{{IPA|mejr}}'' &nbsp;'to sleep'
| ''{{IPA|mejmejr}}'' &nbsp;'sleeping'
| ''{{IPA|mejmejmejr}}'' &nbsp;'still sleeping'
|}

Triplication occurs in other languages, e.g. [[Ewe language|Ewe]], [[Shipibo language|Shipibo]], [[Twi language|Twi]], [[Mokilese language|Mokilese]], [[Min Nan]] ([[Hokkien]]), [[Horpa language|Stau]].{{sfn|Gates|2016}}

Sometimes [[gemination]] (i.e. the doubling of consonants or vowels) is considered to be a form of reduplication. The term ''dupleme'' has been used (after ''morpheme'') to refer to different types of reduplication that have the same meaning.

====Full and partial====
''Full reduplication'' involves a reduplication of the entire word. For example, [[Kham language|Kham]] derives reciprocal forms from [[Reflexive pronoun|reflexive]] forms by total reduplication:

{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|[ɡin]}}
| 'ourselves'
| →
| {{IPA|[ɡinɡin]}}
| 'we (to) us'
| {{IPA|(ɡin-ɡin)}}
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|[jaː]}}
| 'themselves'
| →
| {{IPA|[jaːjaː]}}
| 'they (to) them'
| {{IPA|(jaː-jaː)}}
| <small><cite>(Watters 2002)</cite></small>
|}

Another example is from Musqueam [[Halkomelem]] "dispositional" [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]] formation:

{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|[kʼʷə́ɬ]}}
| 'to capsize'
| →
| {{IPA|[kʼʷə́ɬkʼʷəɬ]}}
| 'likely to capsize'
| {{IPA|(kʼʷə́ɬ-kʼʷəɬ)}}
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|[qʷél]}}
| 'to speak'
| →
| {{IPA|[qʷélqʷel]}}
| 'talkative'
| {{IPA|(qʷél-qʷel)}}
| <small><cite>(Shaw 2004)</cite></small>
|}

''Partial reduplication'' involves a reduplication of only part of the word. For example, [[Marshallese language|Marshallese]] forms words meaning 'to wear X' by reduplicating the last ''consonant-vowel-consonant'' (''CVC'') sequence of a base, i.e. ''base''+''CVC'':

{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| ''kagir''
| 'belt'
| →
| ''kagirgir''
| 'to wear a belt'
| (kagir-gir)
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| ''takin''
| 'sock'
| →
| ''takinkin''
| 'to wear socks'
| (takin-kin)
| <small><cite>(Moravsik 1978)</cite></small>
|}

Many languages often use both full and partial reduplication, as in the [[Motu language|Motu]] example below:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Base verb
! Full reduplication
! Partial reduplication
|-
| ''mahuta'' &nbsp;'to sleep'
| ''mahutamahuta'' &nbsp;'to sleep constantly'
| ''mamahuta'' &nbsp;'to sleep (plural)'
|-
| &nbsp;
| (''mahuta-mahuta'')
| (''ma-mahuta'')
|}

====Reduplicant position====
Reduplication may be ''initial'' (i.e. [[Prefix (linguistics)|prefixal]]), ''final'' (i.e. [[suffix]]al), or ''internal'' (i.e. [[infix]]al), e.g.

'''Initial''' reduplication in [[Aeta peoples#Language|Agta]] ''(CV- prefix)'':
{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|[ɸuɾab]}}
| 'afternoon'
| →
| {{IPA|[ɸuɸuɾab]}}
| 'late afternoon'
| {{IPA|(''ɸu''-ɸuɾab)}}
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|[ŋaŋaj]}}
| 'a long time'
| →
| {{IPA|[ŋaŋaŋaj]}}
| 'a long time (in years)'
| (''ŋa''-ŋaŋaj)
| <small><cite>(Healey 1960)</cite></small>
|}

'''Final''' reduplication in [[Lakota language|Dakota]] ''(-CCV suffix)'':
{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|[hãska]}}
| 'tall (singular)'
| →
| {{IPA|[hãskaska]}}
| 'tall (plural)'
| (hãska-''ska'')
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|[waʃte]}}
| 'good (singular)'
| →
| {{IPA|[waʃteʃte]}}
| 'good (plural)'
| {{IPA|(waʃte-''ʃte'')}}
| <small><cite>(Shaw 1980, Marantz 1982, Albright 2002)</cite></small>
|}

'''Internal''' reduplication in [[Samoan language|Samoan]] ''(-CV- infix)'':
{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| ''savali''
| 'he/she walks' (singular)
| →
| ''savavali''
| 'they walk' (plural)
| (sa-''va''-vali)
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| ''alofa''
| 'he/she loves' (singular)
| →
| ''alolofa''
| 'they love' (plural)
| (a-''lo''-lofa)
| <small><cite>(Moravcsik 1978, Broselow and McCarthy 1984)</cite></small>
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| ''le tamaloa''
| 'the man' (singular){{sfn|Pratt|1984}}
| →
| ''tamaloloa''
| 'men' (plural)
| (tama-''lo''-loa)
|}

Internal reduplication is much less common than the initial and final types.

====Copying direction====
A reduplicant can copy from either the left edge of a word (''left-to-right'' copying) or from the right edge (''right-to-left'' copying). There is a tendency for prefixing reduplicants to copy left-to-right and for suffixing reduplicants to copy right-to-left:

Initial '''L → R''' copying in Oykangand [[Kunjen]] (a [[Pama–Nyungan languages|Pama–Nyungan]] language of [[Australia]]):
{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|[eder]}}
| →
| {{IPA|[ededer]}}
| 'rain'
| (''ed''-<u>ed</u>er)
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|[alɡal]}}
| →
| {{IPA|[alɡalɡal]}}
| 'straight'
| (''alg''-<u>alg</u>al)
|}

Final '''R → L''' copying in [[Sirionó]]:
{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| ''achisia''
| →
| ''achisiasia''
| 'I cut'
| (achi<u>sia</u>-''sia'')
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| ''ñimbuchao''
| →
| ''ñimbuchaochao''
| 'to come apart'
| (ñimbu<u>chao</u>-''chao'')
| <small><cite>(McCarthy and Prince 1996)</cite></small>
|}

Copying from the other direction is possible although less common:

Initial '''R → L''' copying in [[Tillamook language|Tillamook]]:
{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|[ɡaɬ]}}
| 'eye'
| →
| {{IPA|[ɬɡaɬ]}}
| 'eyes'
| {{IPA|(''ɬ''-ɡa<u>ɬ</u>)}}
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|[təq]}}
| 'break'
| →
| {{IPA|[qtəq]}}
| 'they break'
| {{IPA|(''q''-tə<u>q</u>)}}
| <small><cite>(Reichard 1959)</cite></small>
|}

Final '''L → R''' copying in [[Chukchi language|Chukchi]]:
{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| ''nute-''
| 'ground'
| →
| ''nutenut''
| 'ground (abs. sg.)'
| (<u>nut</u>e-''nut'')
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| ''{{IPA|jilʔe-}}''
| 'gopher'
| →
| ''{{IPA|jilʔejil}}''
| 'gopher (abs. sg.)'
| {{IPA|(<u>jil</u>ʔe-''jil'')}}
| <small><cite>(Marantz 1982)</cite></small>
|}

Internal reduplication can also involve copying the beginning or end of the base. In Quileute, the first consonant of the base is copied and inserted after the first vowel of the base.

Internal '''L → R''' copying in [[Quileute language|Quileute]]:
{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|[tsiko]}}
| 'he put it on'
| →
| {{IPA|[tsitsko]}}
| 'he put it on (frequentative)'
| (<u>ts</u>i-''ts''-ko)
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|[tukoːjoʔ]}}
| 'snow'
| →
| {{IPA|[tutkoːjoʔ]}}
| 'snow here and there'
| (<u>t</u>u-''t''-ko:jo’)
| <small><cite>(Broselow and McCarthy 1984)</cite></small>
|}

In Temiar, the last consonant of the root is copied and inserted before the medial consonant of the root.

Internal '''R → L''' copying in [[Temiar language|Temiar]] (an [[Austroasiatic]] language of [[Malaysia]]):
{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|[sluh]}}
| 'to shoot (perfective)'
| →
| {{IPA|[shluh]}}
| 'to shoot (continuative)'
| {{IPA|(s-''h''-lu<u>h</u>)}}
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|[slɔɡ]}}
| 'to marry (perfective)'
| →
| {{IPA|[sɡlɔɡ]}}
| 'to marry (continuative)'
| {{IPA|(s-''ɡ''-lɔ<u>ɡ</u>)}}
| <small><cite>(Broselow and McCarthy 1984, Walther 2000)</cite></small>
|}

A rare type of reduplication is found in [[Semai language|Semai]] (an Austroasiatic language of Malaysia). "Expressive minor reduplication" is formed with an initial reduplicant that copies the first and last segment of the base:

{| style="line-height: 1.4em;" cellpadding="2"
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|[kʉːʔ]}}
| →
| {{IPA|[kʔkʉːʔ]}}
| 'to vomit'
| {{IPA|(''kʔ''-<u>k</u>ʉː<u>ʔ</u>)}}
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|[dŋɔh]}}
| →
| {{IPA|[dhdŋɔh]}}
| 'appearance of nodding constantly'
| {{IPA|(''dh''-<u>d</u>ŋɔ<u>h</u>)}}
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|[cruhaːw]}}
| →
| {{IPA|[cwcruhaːw]}}
| 'monsoon rain'
| {{IPA|(''cw''-<u>c</u>ruhaː<u>w</u>)}}
| <small><cite>Diffloth 1973</cite></small>
|}

====With other morphological processes====
<!-- This section is linked from [[Affix]] -->

All the examples above consist of only reduplication, which also often occurs with other phonological and morphological processes, such as [[vowel alternation]],<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.12697/jeful.2011.2.1.12|title = Vowel alternation in disyllabic reduplicatives: An areal dimension|year = 2011|last1 = Ido|first1 = Shinji|journal = Eesti ja Soome-Ugri Keeleteaduse Ajakiri |volume = 2|pages = 185–194|doi-access = free}}</ref> [[elision|deletion]] and [[affixation]] of non-reduplicating material.

For instance, in [[Tz'utujil language|Tz'utujil]] a new '-ish' adjective form is derived from other words by suffixing the reduplicated first consonant of the base followed by the segment {{IPA|[oχ]}}. This can be written succinctly as ''{{IPA|-Coχ}}''. Below are some examples:

* {{IPA|[kaq]}} 'red' → {{IPA|[kaqkoχ]}} 'reddish' &nbsp;{{IPA|(kaq-''k''-oχ)}}
* {{IPA|[qʼan]}} 'yellow' → {{IPA|[qʼanqʼoχ]}} 'yellowish' &nbsp;{{IPA|(qʼan-''qʼ''-oχ)}}
* {{IPA|[jaʔ]}} 'water' → {{IPA|[jaʔjoχ]}} 'watery' &nbsp;{{IPA|(jaʔ-''j''-oχ)}} &nbsp; <small><cite>(Dayley 1985)</cite></small>

[[Somali language|Somali]] has a similar suffix that is used in forming the plural of some nouns: ''-aC'' (where ''C'' is the last consonant of the base):

* {{IPA|[toɡ]}} 'ditch' → {{IPA|[toɡaɡ]}} 'ditches' &nbsp;{{IPA|(toɡ-a-''ɡ'')}}
* {{IPA|[ʕad]}} 'lump of meat' → {{IPA|[ʕadad]}} 'lumps of meat' &nbsp;{{IPA|(ʕad-a-''d'')}}
* {{IPA|[wɪːl]}} 'boy' → {{IPA|[wɪːlal]}} 'boys' &nbsp;{{IPA|(wɪːl-a-''l'')}} &nbsp; <small><cite>(Abraham 1964)</cite></small>

This combination of reduplication and affixation is commonly referred to as ''fixed-segment reduplication''.

In [[Tohono O'odham]] initial reduplication also involves [[gemination]] of the first consonant in the distributive plural and in repetitive verbs:

* {{IPA|[nowiu]}} 'ox' → {{IPA|[nonnowiu]}} 'ox (distributive)' &nbsp;(''no''-n-nowiu)
* {{IPA|[hódai]}} 'rock' → {{IPA|[hohhodai]}} 'rock (distributive)' &nbsp;(''ho''-h-hodai)
* {{IPA|[kow]}} 'dig out of ground (unitative)' → {{IPA|[kokkow]}} 'dig out of ground (repetitive)' &nbsp;(''ko''-k-kow)
* {{IPA|[ɡɨw]}} 'hit (unitative)' → {{IPA|[ɡɨɡɡɨw]}} 'hit (repetitive)' &nbsp;{{IPA|(''ɡɨ''-ɡ-ɡɨw)}} &nbsp; <small><cite>(Haugen forthcoming)</cite></small>

Sometimes gemination can be analyzed as a type of reduplication.{{citation needed|date=May 2019}}

{{Expand section|date=May 2008}}

====Phonological processes, environment, and reduplicant-base relations====
{{Expand section|date=December 2009}}

* overapplication
* underapplication
* backcopying – A putative phenomenon of over-application in the reduplicant of a process triggered by the reduplicant in the base{{sfn|Kiparsky|2010|pp=125–142}}
* base-reduplicant "identity" ([[Optimality theory|OT]] terminology: BR-faithfulness)
* tonal transfer/non-transfer