Editing Reconquista (section)

== History and military campaigns==

=== Background ===
{{Further|Islam in Spain}}

====Landing in Visigothic Hispania and initial expansion====
{{Further|Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Battle of Guadalete}}

In 711, North African [[Berber people|Berber]] soldiers with some [[Arab]]s commanded by [[Tariq ibn Ziyad]] crossed the [[Strait of Gibraltar]], engaging a Visigothic force led by King [[Roderic]] at the [[Battle of Guadalete]] (July 19–26) in a moment of severe in-fighting and division across the [[Visigothic Kingdom|Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nick |date=2022-11-10 |title=Battle of Guadalete: 2 Reasons It Changed History |url=https://thehistoryace.com/battle-of-guadalete-2-reasons-it-changed-history/ |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=The History Ace |language=en-us}}</ref> Many of Roderic's troops deserted, leading to his defeat. He drowned while crossing the [[Guadalquivir River]].

After Roderic's defeat, the Umayyad governor of [[Ifriqiya|Ifrikiya]] [[Musa ibn Nusayr|Musa ibn-Nusayr]] joined Tariq, directing a campaign against different towns and strongholds in Hispania. Some, like [[Mérida, Spain|Mérida]], [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordova]], or [[Zaragoza]] in 712, probably [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], were taken, but many agreed to a treaty in exchange for maintaining autonomy, in [[Theodemir (Visigoth)|Theodemir]]'s dominion (region of Tudmir), or [[Pamplona]], for example.{{sfn|Collins|1989|pp=38–45}} The invading Islamic armies did not exceed 60,000 men.<ref>{{cite book|last=Fletcher|first=Richard|title=Moorish Spain|year=2006|publisher=Los Angeles: University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-24840-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/moorishspain00rich/page/43 43]|url=https://archive.org/details/moorishspain00rich/page/43}}</ref>

====Islamic rule====
{{Main|Berbers and Islam|Berber Revolt|}}
[[File:Al Andalus - 2.png|thumb|250px|The [[Caliphate of Córdoba]] in the early 10th century]]
After the establishment of a local [[Emirate]], [[Caliph]] [[Al-Walid I]], ruler of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], removed many of the successful Muslim commanders. Tariq ibn Ziyad was recalled to [[Damascus]] and replaced with Musa ibn-Nusayr, who had been his former superior. Musa's son, Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa, apparently married [[Egilona]], [[Roderic]]'s widow, and established his regional government in [[Seville]]. He was suspected of being under the influence of his wife and was accused of wanting to convert to Christianity and of planning a secessionist rebellion. Apparently a concerned Al-Walid I ordered Abd al-Aziz's assassination. Caliph Al-Walid I died in 715 and was succeeded by his brother [[Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik]]. Sulayman seems to have punished the surviving Musa ibn-Nusayr, who very soon died during a pilgrimage in 716. In the end, Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa's cousin, [[Ayyub ibn Habib al-Lakhmi]] became the ''wali'' (governor) of al-Andalus.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}

A serious weakness amongst the Muslim conquerors was the ethnic tension between Berbers and Arabs.<ref>[[Chris Lowney]], ''A Vanished World: Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Medieval Spain'', (Oxford University Press, 2005), 40.</ref> The Berbers were indigenous inhabitants of North Africa who had only recently converted to Islam; they provided most of the soldiery of the invading Islamic armies but sensed Arab discrimination against them.<ref>Roger Collins, ''Early Medieval Spain'', (St. Martin's Press, 1995), 164.</ref> This latent internal conflict jeopardised Umayyad unity. The Umayyad forces arrived and crossed the Pyrenees by 719. The last Visigothic king [[Ardo]] resisted them in Septimania, where he fended off the Berber-Arab armies until 720.<ref>{{cite book | author = Collins, Roger| year = 1989 | title = The Arab Conquest of Spain 710–797 | publisher = Blackwell |location = Oxford, UK / Cambridge, US|isbn= 978-0-631-19405-7|page=45}}</ref>

After the Islamic Moorish conquest of most of the Iberian Peninsula in 711–718 and the establishment of the emirate of al-Andalus, an Umayyad expedition suffered a major defeat at the [[Battle of Toulouse (721)|Battle of Toulouse]] and was halted for a while on its way north. [[Odo of Aquitaine]] had married his daughter to [[Uthman ibn Naissa]], a rebel Berber and lord of [[Cerdanya]], in an attempt to secure his southern borders in order to fend off [[Charles Martel]]'s attacks on the north. However, a major [[punitive expedition]] led by [[Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi]], the latest emir of al-Andalus, defeated and killed Uthman, and the Muslim governor mustered an expedition north across the western Pyrenees, looted areas up to Bordeaux, and defeated Odo in the [[Battle of the River Garonne]] in 732.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reconquista {{!}} Map and Timeline |url=https://history-maps.com/story/Reconquista |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=HistoryMaps |language=en}}</ref>

A desperate Odo turned to his archrival Charles Martel for help, who led the Frankish and remaining Aquitanian armies against the Umayyad armies and defeated them at the [[Battle of Tours|Battle of Poitiers]] in 732, killing Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi. While Moorish rule began to recede in what is today France, it would remain in parts of the Iberian peninsula for another 760 years.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Trawinski |first1=Allan |title=The Clash of Civilizations |year= 2017 |publisher=Page Publishing Inc. |isbn=978-1635687125}}{{page needed|date=May 2023}}</ref>

===Early Reconquista===
==== Beginning of the ''Reconquista'' ====
{{Main|Kingdom of Asturias}}
A drastic increase of taxes on Christians by the emir [[Anbasa ibn Suhaym Al-Kalbi]] provoked several rebellions in al-Andalus, which a series of succeeding weak emirs were unable to suppress. Around 722, a Muslim military expedition was sent into the north in late summer to suppress a rebellion led by [[Pelagius of Asturias]] (Pelayo in Spanish, Pelayu in Asturian). Traditional historiography has hailed Pelagius's [[Battle of Covadonga|victory at Covadonga]] as the beginning of the ''Reconquista''.<ref>{{Citation |title=Covadonga, la batalla que cambió la historia de España |date=2022-05-27 |url=https://www.rtve.es/play/videos/panorama-regional/covadonga-la-batalla-que-cambio-la-historia-de-espana/6549431/ |language=es |access-date=2022-08-11}}</ref>

Two northern realms, Navarre<ref>{{cite book | author = Collins, Roger| year = 1989 | title = The Arab Conquest of Spain 710–797 | publisher = Blackwell |location = Oxford, UK / Cambridge, US|isbn= 978-0-631-19405-7|page=181}}</ref> and Asturias, despite their small size, demonstrated an ability to maintain their independence. Because the Umayyad rulers based in [[Córdoba, Andalusia|Córdoba]] were unable to extend their power over the Pyrenees, they decided to consolidate their power within the Iberian peninsula. Arab-Berber forces made periodic incursions deep into Asturias, but this area was a ''cul-de-sac'' on the fringes of the Islamic world fraught with inconveniences during campaigns and of little interest.<ref>{{cite book | author = Collins, Roger| year = 1989 | title = The Arab Conquest of Spain 710–797 | publisher = Blackwell |location = Oxford, UK / Cambridge, US|isbn= 978-0-631-19405-7|page=156}}</ref>

It comes then as no surprise that, besides focusing on raiding the Arab-Berber strongholds of the Meseta, [[Alfonso I of Asturias]] centred on expanding his domains at the expense of the neighbouring Galicians and Basques at either side of his realm just as much.<ref>{{cite book | author = Collins, Roger| year = 1989 | title = The Arab Conquest of Spain 710–797 | publisher = Blackwell |location = Oxford, UK / Cambridge, US|isbn= 978-0-631-19405-7|pages=156, 159}}</ref> During the first decades, Asturian control over part of the kingdom was weak, and for this reason it had to be continually strengthened through matrimonial alliances and war with other peoples from the north of the Iberian Peninsula. After Pelayo's death in 737, his son [[Favila of Asturias]] was elected king. Favila, according to the chronicles, was killed by a bear during a trial of courage. Pelayo's dynasty in Asturias survived and gradually expanded the kingdom's boundaries until all of northwest Hispania was included by roughly 775. However, credit is due to him and to his successors, the ''Banu Alfons'' from the Arab chronicles. Further expansion of the northwestern kingdom towards the south occurred during the reign of [[Alfonso II of Asturias]] (from 791 to 842). A king's expedition arrived in and pillaged Lisbon in 798, probably concerted with the Carolingians.<ref>{{cite book | author = Collins, Roger| year = 1989 | title = The Arab Conquest of Spain 710–797 | publisher = Blackwell |location = Oxford, UK / Cambridge, US|isbn= 978-0-631-19405-7|page=212}}</ref>

The Asturian kingdom became firmly established with the recognition of Alfonso II as king of Asturias by [[Charlemagne]] and the Pope. During his reign, the bones of [[James, son of Zebedee|St. James the Great]] were declared to have been found in Galicia, at [[Santiago de Compostela]]. Pilgrims from all over Europe opened a channel of communication between the isolated Asturias and the Carolingian lands and beyond, centuries later.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-07-31 |title=The Way of St. James – Bodega Tandem |url=https://tandem.es/en/camino/ |access-date=2022-08-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731161327/https://tandem.es/en/camino/ |archive-date=31 July 2021 }}</ref>

====Frankish invasions====
{{Main|Umayyad invasion of Gaul|Marca Hispanica}}

After the Umayyad conquest of the Iberian heartland of the Visigothic kingdom, the Muslims crossed the Pyrenees and gradually took control of [[Septimania]], starting in 719 with the conquest of [[Narbonne]] through 725 when [[Carcassonne]] and [[Nîmes]] were secured. From the stronghold of Narbonne, they tried to conquer [[Aquitaine]] but suffered a major defeat at the [[Battle of Toulouse (721)]].<ref name="Lewis AR 20-33">{{cite book|title=The Development of Southern French and Catalan Society, 718–1050|last=Lewis|first=Archibald R.|author-link=Archibald Ross Lewis|year=1965|publisher=The University of Texas Press|pages=20–33|access-date=28 October 2017|url=http://libro.uca.edu/lewis/sfcatsoc.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171211183903/http://libro.uca.edu/lewis/sfcatsoc.htm|archive-date=11 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

Ten years after halting their advance north, [[Odo of Aquitaine]] married his daughter to [[Uthman ibn Naissa]], a rebel Berber and lord of [[Cerdanya]] (perhaps all of contemporary Catalonia as well), in an attempt to secure his southern borders to fend off [[Charles Martel]]'s attacks on the north. However, a major [[punitive expedition]] led by [[Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi]], the latest emir of al-Andalus, defeated and killed Uthman.<ref name="Lewis AR 20-33"/>

After expelling the Muslims [[Siege of Narbonne (752-759)|from Narbonne in 759]] and driving their forces back over the Pyrenees, the Carolingian king [[Pepin the Short#Expansion of the Frankish realm|Pepin the Short conquered Aquitaine]] in a ruthless eight-year war. Charlemagne followed his father by subduing Aquitaine by creating counties, taking the Church as his ally and appointing counts of Frankish or Burgundian stock, like his loyal [[William of Gellone]], making [[Toulouse]] his base for expeditions against al-Andalus.<ref name="Lewis AR 20-33"/> Charlemagne decided to organize a regional subkingdom, the [[Spanish March]], which included part of contemporary [[Catalonia]], in order to keep the Aquitanians in check and to secure the southern border of the [[Carolingian Empire]] against Muslim incursions. In 781, his three-year-old son [[Louis the Pious|Louis]] was crowned king of [[Aquitaine]], under the supervision of Charlemagne's trustee William of Gellone, and was nominally in charge of the incipient Spanish March.<ref name="Lewis AR 20-33"/>

Meanwhile, the takeover of the southern fringes of al-Andalus by Abd ar-Rahman I in 756 was opposed by [[Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri|Yusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman]], autonomous governor (''[[wāli]]'') or king (''malik'') of al-Andalus. Abd ar-Rahman I expelled Yusuf from Cordova,<ref>{{cite book | author = Collins, Roger| year = 1989 | title = The Arab Conquest of Spain 710–797 | publisher = Blackwell |location = Oxford, UK / Cambridge, US|isbn= 978-0-631-19405-7|pages=118–126}}</ref> but it took still decades for him to expand to the north-western Andalusian districts. He was also opposed externally by the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasids]] of Baghdad who failed in their attempts to overthrow him. In 778, Abd al-Rahman closed in on the Ebro valley. Regional lords saw the Umayyad emir at the gates and decided to enlist the nearby Christian Franks. According to [[Ali ibn al-Athir]], a Kurdish historian of the 12th century, Charlemagne received the envoys of [[Sulayman al-Arabi]], Husayn, and [[Abu Taur of Huesca|Abu Taur]] at the Diet of Paderborn in 777. These rulers of [[Zaragoza]], [[Girona]], [[Barcelona]], and [[Huesca]] were enemies of Abd ar-Rahman I, and in return for Frankish military aid against him offered their homage and allegiance.<ref name="Collins, Roger 1989 177–181">{{cite book | author = Collins, Roger| year = 1989 | title = The Arab Conquest of Spain 710–797 | publisher = Blackwell |location = Oxford, UK / Cambridge, US|isbn= 978-0-631-19405-7|pages=177–181}}</ref>

[[File:Spain Reconquista cities.png|thumb|Reconquista of the main towns, per year (present-day state borders)]]
Charlemagne, seeing an opportunity, agreed upon an expedition and crossed the Pyrenees in 778. Near the city of [[Zaragoza]] Charlemagne received the homage of [[Sulayman al-Arabi]]. However the city, under the leadership of [[Husayn of Zaragoza|Husayn]], closed its gates and refused to submit.<ref name="Collins, Roger 1989 177–181"/> Unable to conquer the city by force, Charlemagne decided to retreat. On the way home the rearguard of the army was ambushed and destroyed by Basque forces at the [[Battle of Roncevaux Pass]]. ''[[The Song of Roland]]'', a highly romanticised account of this battle, would later become one of the most famous {{lang|fro|[[Chanson de geste|chansons de geste]]}} of the Middle Ages. Around 788 Abd ar-Rahman I died and was succeeded by [[Hisham I of Córdoba|Hisham I]]. In 792 Hisham proclaimed a [[jihad]], advancing in 793 against the [[Kingdom of Asturias]] and Carolingian [[Septimania|Septimania (Gothia)]]. They defeated William of Gellone, Count of Toulouse, in battle, but [[William of Gellone|William]] led an expedition the following year across the eastern Pyrenees. [[Barcelona]], a major city, became a potential target for the Franks in 797, as its governor Zeid rebelled against the Umayyad emir of Córdoba. An army of the emir managed to recapture it in 799, but Louis, at the head of an army, crossed the Pyrenees and [[Siege of Barcelona (801)|besieged the city for seven months]] until it finally capitulated in 801.<ref name="Lewis AR 37-49">{{cite book|title=The Development of Southern French and Catalan Society, 718–1050|last=Lewis|first=Archibald R.|author-link=Archibald Ross Lewis|year=1965|publisher=The University of Texas Press|pages=37–49|access-date=28 October 2017|url=http://libro.uca.edu/lewis/sfcatsoc.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171211183903/http://libro.uca.edu/lewis/sfcatsoc.htm|archive-date=11 December 2017|url-status=live}} It took place on 28 December 801.</ref>

The main passes in the Pyrenees were [[Roncesvalles]], [[Somport]] and [[La Jonquera]]. Charlemagne established across them the vassal regions of [[Pamplona]], [[Aragon]], and [[Catalonia]] respectively. Catalonia was itself formed from a number of [[Catalan counties|small counties]], including [[County of Pallars|Pallars]], [[Girona (province)|Girona]], and [[Urgell]]; it was called the ''Marca Hispanica'' by the late 8th century. They protected the eastern Pyrenees passes and shores and were under the direct control of the Frankish kings. Pamplona's first king was [[Iñigo Arista]], who allied with his Muslim kinsmen the [[Banu Qasi]] and rebelled against Frankish overlordship and overcame a [[Battle of Roncevaux Pass (824)|Carolingian expedition in 824]] that led to the setup of the [[Kingdom of Pamplona]]. Aragon, founded in 809 by [[Aznar Galíndez]], grew around [[Jaca]] and the high valleys of the [[Aragon River]], protecting the old Roman road. By the end of the 10th century, Aragon, which then was just a county, was annexed by Navarre. Sobrarbe and Ribagorza were small counties and had little significance to the progress of the ''Reconquista''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Archaeology |url=https://perennialpyrenees.com/category/archaeology/ |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=Perennial Pyrenees |language=en}}</ref>

In the late 9th century under [[Wilfred the Hairy, Count of Barcelona|Count Wilfred]], Barcelona became the ''de facto'' capital of the region. It controlled the other counties' policies in a union, which led in 948 to the independence of Barcelona under [[Borrell II, Count of Barcelona|Count Borrel II]], who declared that the new dynasty in France (the [[Capet]]s) were not the legitimate rulers of France nor, as a result, of his county. These states were small and, with the exception of Navarre, did not have the capacity for attacking the Muslims in the way that Asturias did, but their mountainous geography rendered them relatively safe from being conquered, and their borders remained stable for two centuries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Counts – The Origins of Catalonia |url=https://www.autentic.com/65/pid/880/Counts-The-Origins-of-Catalonia.htm |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=www.autentic.com}}</ref>

===Northern Christian realms===
{{see also|Spain in the Middle Ages#Medieval Christian Spain|Portugal in the Middle Ages#Reconquista in Portugal}}
The northern principalities and kingdoms survived in their mountainous strongholds (see above). However, they started a definite territorial expansion south at the turn of the 10th century (Leon, Najera). The fall of the Caliphate of Cordova (1031) heralded a period of military expansion for the northern kingdoms, now divided into several mighty regional powers after the division of the Kingdom of Navarre (1035). Myriad autonomous Christian kingdoms emerged thereafter.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kingdom of Navarre |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kingdom-of-Navarre |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=27 October 2022}}</ref>

====Kingdom of Asturias (718–924)====
{{Main|Kingdom of Asturias}}
{{See also|Kingdom of Galicia|Duchy of Cantabria}}
The Kingdom of Asturias was located in the [[Cantabrian Mountains]], a wet and mountainous region in the north of the Iberian Peninsula. It was the first Christian power to emerge. The kingdom was established by a Visigothic nobleman, named Pelagius (''Pelayo''), who had possibly returned after the Battle of Guadalete in 711 and was elected leader of the Asturians,<ref name="Peña p. 27">Ruiz De La Peña. La monarquia asturiana 718–910, p. 27. Cangas de Onís, 2000. {{ISBN|9788460630364}} / Fernández Conde. Estudios Sobre La Monarquía Asturiana, pp. 35–76. Estudios Históricos La Olmeda, 2015. {{ISBN|978-8497048057}}</ref> and the remnants of the ''gens Gothorum'' (the Hispano-Gothic aristocracy and the Hispano-Visigothic population who took refuge in the North). Historian Joseph F. O'Callaghan says an unknown number of them fled and took refuge in Asturias or Septimania. In Asturias they supported Pelagius's uprising, and joining with the indigenous leaders, formed a new [[aristocracy]]. 

The population of the mountain region consisted of native Astures, Galicians, Cantabri, Basques and other groups unassimilated into Hispano-Gothic society,<ref name="O'Callaghan2013176">{{cite book|author=Joseph F. O'Callaghan|title=A History of Medieval Spain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cq2dDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA176|year=2013|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-6872-8|page=176}}</ref> laying the foundations for the Kingdom of Asturias and starting the [[Astur-Leonese dynasty]] that spanned from 718 to 1037 and led the initial efforts in the Iberian peninsula to take back the territories then ruled by the Moors.<ref name="Peña p. 27"/> Although the new dynasty first ruled in the mountains of Asturias, with the capital of the kingdom established initially in [[Cangas de Onís]], and was in its dawn mostly concerned with securing the territory and settling the monarchy, the latest kings (particularly [[Alfonso III of Asturias]]) emphasised the nature of the new kingdom as heir of that in [[Visigothic Kingdom|Toledo]] and the restoration of the Visigothic nation in order to vindicate the expansion to the south.<ref>Casariego, J.E.: ''Crónicas de los reinos de Asturias y León''. Biblioteca Universitaria Everest, León 1985, p. 68. {{ASIN|B00I78R3S4}}{{ISBN missing}}</ref> However, such claims have been overall dismissed by modern historiography, emphasizing the distinct, autochthonous nature of the Cantabro-Asturian and Vasconic domains with no continuation to the Gothic Kingdom of Toledo.<ref>García Fitz, Francisco. 2009, pp. 149–150</ref>

Pelagius's kingdom initially was little more than a gathering point for the existing guerrilla forces. During the first decades, the Asturian dominion over the different areas of the kingdom was still lax, and for this reason it had to be continually strengthened through matrimonial alliances with other powerful families from the north of the Iberian Peninsula. Thus, Ermesinda, Pelagius's daughter, was married to [[Alfonso I of Asturias|Alfonso]], [[Duchy of Cantabria|Dux Peter of Cantabria]]'s son. Alfonso's son [[Fruela I of Asturias|Fruela]] married Munia, a Basque from [[Álava]], after crushing a Basque uprising (probably resistance). Their son is reported to be [[Alfonso II of Asturias|Alfonso II]], while Alfonso I's daughter Adosinda married Silo, a local chief from the area of Flavionavia, Pravia.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-01-02 |title=What was the Reconquista? – Boot Camp & Military Fitness Institute |url=https://bootcampmilitaryfitnessinstitute.com/2021/01/02/what-was-the-reconquista/ |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=bootcampmilitaryfitnessinstitute.com |language=en-GB}}</ref>

Alfonso's military strategy was typical of Iberian warfare at the time. Lacking the means needed for wholesale conquest of large territories, his tactics consisted of raids in the border regions of [[Vardulia]]. With the plunder he gained further military forces could be paid, enabling him to raid the Muslim cities of [[Lisbon]], [[Zamora (Spain)|Zamora]], and [[Coimbra]]. Alfonso I also expanded his realm westwards conquering [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=O'Callaghan |first=Joseph F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cq2dDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA176 |title=A History of Medieval Spain |year=2013 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-6872-8 |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Painting of Santiago Matamoros.jpg|thumb|[[James the Great|Saint James the Great]] depicted as [[Saint James Matamoros|Saint James the Moor-slayer]].  Legend of the ''Reconquista''|alt=]]

During the reign of [[Alfonso II of Asturias|King Alfonso II]] (791–842), the kingdom was firmly established, and a series of Muslim raids caused the transfer of the Asturian capital to [[Oviedo]]. The king is believed to have initiated diplomatic contacts with the kings of [[Pamplona]] and the [[Carolingian]]s, thereby gaining official recognition for his kingdom and his crown from the [[Pope]] and [[Charlemagne]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-24 |title=Alfonso II, Charlemagne and the Jacobean Cult (full text in Spanish) |url=http://oppidum.es/oppidum-17/opp17.12_larranaga_alfonso.ii,.carlomagno.y.el.culto.jacobeo.pdf |access-date=2022-08-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324174530/http://oppidum.es/oppidum-17/opp17.12_larranaga_alfonso.ii,.carlomagno.y.el.culto.jacobeo.pdf |archive-date=24 March 2022 }}</ref>

The [[relic|bones]] of St. [[James the Great]] were proclaimed to have been found in Iria Flavia (present day [[Padrón]]) in 813 or probably two or three decades later. The cult of the saint was transferred later to [[Santiago de Compostela|Compostela]] (from Latin ''campus stellae'', literally "the star field"), possibly in the early 10th century when the focus of Asturian power moved from the mountains over to Leon, to become the [[Kingdom of León]] or Galicia-Leon. Santiago's were among many saint relics proclaimed to have been found across north-western Hispania. Pilgrims started to flow in from other Iberian Christian realms, sowing the seeds of the later [[Way of Saint James]] (11–12th century) that sparked the enthusiasm and religious zeal of continental [[Christian Europe]] for centuries.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

Despite numerous battles, neither the Umayyads nor the Asturians had sufficient forces to secure control over these northern territories. Under the reign of [[Ramiro I of Asturias|Ramiro]], famed for the highly legendary [[Battle of Clavijo]], the border began to slowly move southward and Asturian holdings in [[Castile (historical region)|Castile]], Galicia, and [[León (province)|Leon]] were fortified, and an intensive program of re-population of the countryside began in those territories. In 924 the Kingdom of Asturias became the [[Kingdom of León]], when Leon became the seat of the royal court (it didn't bear any official name).<ref>{{cite book | author = Collins, Roger| year = 1983 | title = Early Medieval Spain | publisher = St. Martin's Press |location = New York|isbn= 0-312-22464-8|page = 238}}</ref>

====Kingdom of León (910–1230)====
{{Main|Kingdom of León|Kingdom of Galicia|County of Portugal|Portugal in the Reconquista}}
[[Alfonso III of Asturias]] repopulated the strategically important city [[León, Spain|Leon]] and established it as his capital. King Alfonso began a series of campaigns to establish control over all the lands north of the [[Douro]] river. He reorganised his territories into the major duchies ([[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] and Portugal) and major counties ([[Saldaña, Palencia|Saldaña]] and Castile), and fortified the borders with many castles. At his death in 910 the shift in regional power was completed as the kingdom became the [[Kingdom of León]]. From this power base, his heir [[Ordoño II of León|Ordoño II]] was able to organize attacks against [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] and even [[Seville]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chapter Four |url=http://somosprimos.com/michaelperez/ribera4/ribera4.htm |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=somosprimos.com}}</ref>

The [[Caliphate of Córdoba]] was gaining power, and began to attack Leon. King Ordoño allied with Navarre against Abd-al-Rahman, but they were [[battle of Valdejunquera|defeated in Valdejunquera]] in 920. For the next 80 years, the Kingdom of León suffered civil wars, Moorish attack, internal intrigues and assassinations, and the partial independence of Galicia and Castile, thus delaying the reconquest and weakening the Christian forces. It was not until the following century that the Christians started to see their conquests as part of a long-term effort to restore the unity of the Visigothic kingdom.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

The only point during this period when the situation became hopeful for Leon was the reign of [[Ramiro II of León|Ramiro II]]. King Ramiro, in alliance with [[Fernán González of Castile]] and his retinue of ''caballeros villanos'', [[battle of Simancas|defeated the Caliph in Simancas]] in 939. After this battle, when the Caliph barely escaped with his guard and the rest of the army was destroyed, King Ramiro obtained 12 years of peace, but he had to give González the independence of Castile as payment for his help in the battle. After this defeat, Moorish attacks abated until [[Almanzor]] began his campaigns. [[Alfonso V of León|Alfonso V]] finally regained control over his domains in 1002. Navarre, though attacked by Almanzor, remained intact.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fernán González {{!}} count of Castile {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Fernan-Gonzalez |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

The conquest of Leon did not include Galicia which was left to temporary independence after the withdrawal of the Leonese king. Galicia was conquered soon after (by Ferdinand, son of Sancho the Great, around 1038). Subsequent kings titled themselves kings of Galicia and Leon, instead of merely king of Leon as the two were in a [[personal union]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sancho III (king of Navarre) {{!}} Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/reference/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/sancho-iii-king-navarre |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref>

At the end of the 11th century, King [[Alfonso VI of León and Castile|Afonso VI of León]] reached the Tagus (1085), repeating the same policy of alliances and developing collaboration with [[Franks|Frankish]] knights. The original ''[[repoblación]]'' was then complete. His aim was to create a Hispanic empire like the [[Visigothic Kingdom]] (418–720) to reclaim his hegemony over the entire [[Iberian Peninsula]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=El yermo estratégico del Desierto del Duero – Observatorio de Seguridad y Defensa |url=https://observatorio.cisde.es/archivo/el-yermo-estrategico-del-desierto-del-duero/ |access-date=2024-03-19 |language=es-ES}}</ref> Within this context, the territory between the [[Douro]] and the [[Tagus]] was repopulated and a western nucleus was formed in [[Portugal in the Middle Ages|Portugal that wanted independence]].<ref name=":02">Porto Editora – Reconquista Cristã na Infopédia [em linha]. Porto: Porto Editora. [consult. 2024-03-19 17:48:31]. Disponível em https://www.infopedia.pt/$reconquista-crista</ref> This marks the beginning of the [[Portugal in the Reconquista|Portuguese ''Repovoação'' ou ''Repovoamento'']] occurred during the reigns of the [[Portuguese House of Burgundy|House of Burgundy]] up to the middle of the thirteenth century when the [[Portugal in the Reconquista|Portuguese Reconquista]] was also brought to an end with the ultimate conquering of [[Gharb al-Andalus]] when in March 1249 the city of [[Faro, Portugal|Faro]] was conquered by [[Afonso III of Portugal]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=Reconquista Cristã |url=https://historiaonline.com/glossario/reconquista-crista/ |access-date=2024-03-19 |website=História Online |language=pt-PT}}</ref><ref name=":02" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Higounet |first=Charles |date=1953 |title=La Reconquista española y la repoblación del país. Escuela de estudios medievales, Inst. de Estudios pirenaicos |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/hispa_0007-4640_1953_num_55_2_3359_t1_0206_0000_2 |journal=Bulletin Hispanique |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=206–208}}</ref><ref name=":32">{{Cite web |title=Reconquista española: qué fue y sus características |url=https://humanidades.com/reconquista-espanola/ |access-date=2024-03-19 |website=humanidades.com/ |language=es-ES}}</ref><ref name=":42">{{Cite web |title=Reconquista da Península Ibérica – Conheça a História |url=https://www.brasilparalelo.com.br/artigos/reconquista-da-peninsula-iberica |access-date=2024-03-19 |website=www.brasilparalelo.com.br |language=pt}}</ref>

====Kingdom of Castile (1037–1230)====
{{Main|Kingdom of Castile}}
[[File:Alfonso VI reconquista Toledo.JPG|thumb|20th century ceramic depiction of the [[conquest of Toledo]] by [[Alfonso VI of León and Castile|Alfonso VI]], at the [[Plaza de España, Seville|Plaza de España]]]]
[[Ferdinand I of León|Ferdinand I of Leon]] was the leading king of the mid-11th century. He conquered [[Coimbra]] and attacked the [[taifa]] kingdoms, often demanding the tributes known as [[parias]]. Ferdinand's strategy was to continue to demand parias until the taifa was greatly weakened both militarily and financially. He also repopulated the Borders with numerous ''fueros''. Following the Navarrese tradition, on his death in 1064 he divided his kingdom between his sons. His son [[Sancho II of Castile]] wanted to reunite the kingdom of his father and attacked his brothers, with a young noble at his side: Rodrigo Díaz, later known as [[El Cid Campeador]]. Sancho was killed in the siege of [[Zamora (Spain)|Zamora]] by the traitor Bellido Dolfos (also known as Vellido Adolfo) in 1072. His brother [[Alfonso VI of Castile|Alfonso VI]] took over Leon, Castile and Galicia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ferdinand I {{!}} king of Castile and Leon {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ferdinand-I-king-of-Castile-and-Leon |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

Alfonso VI the Brave gave more power to the ''fueros'' and repopulated [[Segovia]], [[Ávila (province)|Ávila]] and [[Salamanca]]. Once he had secured the Borders, King Alfonso conquered the powerful [[Taifa of Toledo|Taifa kingdom of Toledo]] in 1085. [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], which was the former capital of the Visigoths, was a very important landmark, and the conquest made Alfonso renowned throughout the [[Christian world]]. However, this "conquest" was conducted rather gradually, and mostly peacefully, during the course of several decades.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Alfonso VI {{!}} Biography, Facts, & Children {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alfonso-VI |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> However, Toledo was not fully secured and integrated into Alfonso's kingdom until after a period of gradual resettlement and consolidation, during which Christian settlers were encouraged to move into the area.

Alfonso VI was first and foremost a tactful monarch who chose to understand the kings of taifa and employed unprecedented diplomatic measures to attain political feats before considering the use of force. He adopted the title ''[[Imperator totius Hispaniae]]'' ("Emperor of all [[Hispania]]", referring to all the Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula, and not just the modern country of Spain). Alfonso's more aggressive policy towards the taifas worried the rulers of those kingdoms, who called on the African [[Almoravid]]s for help.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ampuero |first=Marcelo E. Fuentes |date=May 2018 |title=An Empire of Two Religions: Muslims as Allies, Enemies, and Subjects in the Literature of the Iberian Christian Kingdoms |url=https://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/11299/215162/Fuentes_umn_0130E_19269.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230616173625/https://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/11299/215162/Fuentes_umn_0130E_19269.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |archive-date=June 16, 2023 |access-date=June 16, 2023}}</ref>

==== Kingdom of Navarre (824–1620) ====
{{Main|Kingdom of Navarre}}
The [[Kingdom of Pamplona]] primarily extended along either side of the Pyrenees on the Atlantic Ocean. The kingdom was formed when local leader Íñigo Arista led a revolt against the regional Frankish authority and was elected or declared King in Pamplona (traditionally in 824), establishing a kingdom inextricably linked at this stage to their kinsmen, the [[muwallad]] [[Banu Qasi]] of Tudela.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Iñigo Arista {{!}} Basque ruler {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Inigo-Arista |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

Although relatively weak until the early 11th century, Pamplona took a more active role after the accession of [[Sancho III of Pamplona|Sancho the Great]] (1004–1035). The kingdom expanded greatly under his reign, as it absorbed Castile, Leon, and what was to be Aragon, in addition to other small counties that would unite and become the [[Principality of Catalonia]]. This expansion also led to the independence of Galicia, as well as gaining overlordship over [[Gascony]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sancho III Garcés {{!}} king of Pamplona [Navarre] {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sancho-III-Garces |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

In the 12th century, however, the kingdom contracted to its core, and in 1162 King [[Sancho VI of Navarre|Sancho VI]] declared himself [[Kingdom of Navarre|king of Navarre]]. Throughout its early history, the Navarrese kingdom engaged in frequent skirmishes with the Carolingian Empire, from which it maintained its independence, a key feature of its history until 1513.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sancho VI {{!}} king of Navarre {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sancho-VI |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

====Kingdom and Crown of Aragon (1035–1706)====
{{Main|Kingdom of Aragon|County of Barcelona|Principality of Catalonia|Kingdom of Valencia|Kingdom of Mallorca|Crown of Aragon}}
[[File:Jaume I, Cantigas de Santa Maria, s.XIII.jpg|thumb|The Moors request permission from [[James I of Aragon]]]]

The Kingdom of Aragon started off as an offshoot of the Kingdom of Navarre. It was formed when [[Sancho III of Navarre]] decided to divide his large realm among all his sons. Aragon was the portion of the realm which passed to [[Ramiro I of Aragon]], an illegitimate son of Sancho III. The kingdoms of Aragon and Navarre were several times united in personal union until the death of [[Alfonso the Battler]] in 1135.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kingdom of Aragon {{!}} medieval kingdom, Spain {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kingdom-of-Aragon |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

In 1137, the heiress of the kingdom married the [[count of Barcelona]], and their son [[Alfonso II of Aragon|Alfonso II]] ruled from 1162 the combined possessions of his parents, resulting in the composite monarchy that modern historians call the [[Crown of Aragon]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bisson |first1=Thomas N. |title=Medieval crown of Aragon : a short history |date=1986 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0191675294 |pages=31–57}}</ref> Alfonso successfully reincorporated the [[Principality of Tarragona]] into their realm, expelling the Norman [[Robert d'Aguiló|d'Aguiló]] family.<ref name="McCrank1974">{{cite book |last1=McCrank |first1=Lawrence |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/3c409e6f922c24bc1682a27b3b39d061/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y |title=Restoration and reconquest in medieval Catalonia: the church and principality of Tarragona |date=1974 |publisher=University of Virginia |pages= |access-date=24 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224124015/https://www.proquest.com/openview/3c409e6f922c24bc1682a27b3b39d061/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y |archive-date=24 February 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In the following centuries, the Crown of Aragon conquered a number of territories in the Iberian peninsula and the Mediterranean, including the [[kingdom of Valencia]] and the [[kingdom of Mallorca]]. [[James I of Aragon]], also known as James the Conqueror, expanded his territories to the north, south and east. James also signed the [[Treaty of Corbeil (1258)]], in which the French king renounced to any feudal claim over Catalonia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=James I {{!}} King of Sicily & Valencia {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/James-I-king-of-Aragon |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

Early in his reign, James attempted to reunite the Aragonese and Navarrese crowns through a treaty with the childless [[Sancho VII of Navarre]]. But the Navarrese nobles rejected him, and chose [[Theobald IV of Champagne]] in his stead.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

Later on, [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]], married [[Isabella of Castile]], leading to a dynastic union which eventually gave birth to modern Spain, after the conquest of Upper [[kingdom of Navarre|Navarre]] (Navarre south of the Pyrenees) and the [[Emirate of Granada]].<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |date=2023-05-05 |title=Reconquista {{!}} Definition, History, Significance, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Reconquista |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

====Kingdom of Portugal (1139–1249)====
{{Main|Portugal in the Reconquista}}
[[File:GeraldoGeraldesSemPavor.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Statue of Geraldo Geraldes Sem Pavor or [[Gerald the Fearless]]. A Portuguese folk hero with the head of a Moor]]

In 1139, after an overwhelming victory in the [[Battle of Ourique]] against the [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravids]], [[Afonso Henriques]] was proclaimed the first [[List of Portuguese monarchs|King of Portugal]] by his troops. According to the legend, Christ announced from heaven{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}} Afonso's great deeds, whereby he would establish the first [[Portuguese Cortes]] at [[Lamego]] and be crowned by the [[Primate (bishop)|Primate]] [[Archbishop of Braga]]. In 1142 a group of Anglo-Norman crusaders on their way to the Holy Land helped King Afonso Henriques in a failed [[Siege of Lisbon (1142)]].<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://doi.org/10.5699/portstudies.29.1.0007|doi = 10.5699/portstudies.29.1.0007|title = Revisiting the Anglo-Norman Crusaders' Failed Attempt to Conquer Lisbon ''c.'' 1142|year = 2013|last1 = Lucas Villegas-Aristizábal|journal = Portuguese Studies|volume = 29|page = 7}}</ref> In the [[Treaty of Zamora]] in 1143, [[Alfonso VII of León and Castile|Alfonso VII of Leon and Castile]] recognized Portuguese independence from the Kingdom of León.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sutori |url=https://www.sutori.com/en/story/the-siege-of-lisbon--KAPho8TyiMUT3bxY4w4YJisU |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=www.sutori.com |language=en}}</ref>

In 1147, Portugal [[Conquest of Santarém|captured Santarém]], and seven months later the city of Lisbon was also brought under Portuguese control after the [[Siege of Lisbon]]. By the papal bull [[Manifestis Probatum]], [[Pope Alexander III]] recognized Afonso Henriques as King of Portugal in 1179.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Battle of Lisbon {{!}} Summary {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Siege-of-Lisbon |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

With [[Portugal]] finally recognized as an independent kingdom by its neighbors, [[Afonso Henriques]] and his successors, aided by [[Crusades|Crusaders]] and the military monastic orders the [[Knights Templar]], the [[Order of Aviz]] or the [[Order of Saint James of the Sword|Order of Saint James]], pushed the [[Moors]] to the [[Algarve]] on the southern coast of Portugal. After several campaigns, the Portuguese part in the ''Reconquista'' came to an end with the definitive [[Portuguese Conquest of Algarve|capture of the Algarve]] in 1249. With all of Portugal now under the control of [[Afonso III of Portugal]], religious, cultural and ethnic groups became gradually homogenized.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

[[File:Cross of the Military Order of Christ.svg|thumb|upright=0.8|Cross of the [[Order of Christ (Portugal)|Order of Christ]]]]

After the completion of the ''Reconquista'', the Portuguese territory was a Roman Catholic realm. Nonetheless, [[Denis of Portugal]] carried out a short war with [[Crown of Castile|Castile]] for possession of the towns of [[Serpa]] and [[Moura Municipality|Moura]]. After this, Denis avoided war. In 1297, he signed the [[Treaty of Alcanizes]] with [[Ferdinand IV of Castile]], establishing a permanent border between the two kingdoms.<ref>Juan-Manuel Trillo-Santamaría & Valerià Paül, 'The Oldest Boundary in Europe? A Critical Approach to the Spanish-Portuguese Border: The ''Raia'' Between Galicia and Portugal', ''Geopolitics'', 19:1, 161–181 [167]</ref>

During the suppression of the Knights Templar all over Europe, under the influence of [[Philip IV of France]] and [[Pope Clement V]] requesting its annihilation by 1312, King Denis reinstituted the Templars of [[Tomar]] as the [[Order of Christ (Portugal)|Order of Christ]] in 1319. Denis believed that the Order's assets should by their nature stay in any given Order instead of being taken by the King, largely for the Templars' contribution to the ''Reconquista'' and the reconstruction of Portugal after the wars.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Archives |first=The National |date=2014-11-29 |title=The National Archives – The Templars' 'curse' on the King of France |url=https://blog.nationalarchives.gov.uk/templars-curse-king-france/ |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=The National Archives blog |language=en-GB}}</ref>

The experience gained during the battles of the ''Reconquista'' was fundamental to [[Conquest of Ceuta]],<ref name="auto"/> the first step to the establishment of the [[Portuguese Empire]]. Likewise, the contact with [[Islamic Golden Age|Muslim's navigation techniques and sciences]] enabled the creation of [[Portuguese Renaissance|Portuguese nautical innovations]] such as the [[caravel]] – the principal Portuguese ship during their voyages of exploration in the [[Age of Discovery]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hobson|first1=John M.|title=The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation|date=2004|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0521547246|page=141|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KQN85hrJyT4C&pg=PA141|language=en}}</ref>

==== Minor Christian realms ====
Minor Christian realms were the [[Kingdom of Viguera]] (970–1005), the [[Lordship of Albarracín]] (1167–1300), the [[Principality of Tarragona]] (1129–1173), and the [[:es:Señorío de Valencia|Principality of Valencia]] (1094–1102).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Battle of Valencia {{!}} Summary {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Valencia |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

=== Southern Islamic realms ===
{{Further|al-Andalus}}

==== Umayyads ====
{{Main|Emirate of Córdoba|Caliphate of Córdoba}}
[[File:Batalla del Puig por Marzal de Sas (1410-20).jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of the Puig]] at [[El Puig|El Puig de Santa Maria]] in 1237]]

During the 9th century the Berbers returned to North Africa in the aftermath of revolts. Many governors of large cities distant from the capital, Córdoba, had planned to establish their independence. Then, in 929, the [[Emir of Córdoba]] ([[Abd-ar-Rahman III]]), the leader of the Umayyad dynasty, declared himself [[Caliph]], independent from the [[Abbasid]]s in [[Baghdad]]. He took all the military, religious, and political power and reorganised the army and the bureaucracy.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

After regaining control over the dissident governors, Abd-ar-Rahman III tried to conquer the remaining Christian kingdoms of the Iberian peninsula, attacking them several times and forcing them back beyond the [[Cantabrian Mountains]]. Abd-ar-Rahman's grandson later became a puppet in the hands of the great [[Vizier]] [[Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir|Almanzor]] (''al-Mansur'', "the victorious"). Almanzor waged several campaigns attacking and sacking [[Burgos]], Leon, [[Pamplona]], [[Barcelona]], and [[Santiago de Compostela]] before his death in 1002.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

==== ''Taifas'' ====
{{Main|Taifa}}
Between Almanzor's death and 1031, al-Andalus suffered many civil wars, which ended in the division into the [[Taifa|Taifa kingdoms]]. The taifas were small kingdoms, established by the city governors. The result was many (up to 34) small kingdoms, each centered upon its capital. Their governors had no larger-scale vision of the Moorish presence in the Iberian peninsula and had no qualms about attacking their neighbouring kingdoms whenever they could gain advantage by doing so.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

The split into the taifa states weakened the Islamic presence, and the Christian kingdoms further advanced as [[Alfonso VI of León and Castile|Alfonso VI of Leon and Castile]] conquered [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] in 1085. Surrounded by enemies, taifa rulers sent a desperate appeal to the Berber chieftain [[Yusuf ibn Tashfin]], leader of the Almoravids.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} ''Taifas'' reemerged when the Almoravid dynasty collapsed in the 1140s, and again when the Almohad Caliphate declined in the 1220s.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

====Almoravids====
{{Main|Almoravid dynasty}}
[[File:Mapa reconquista almohades-en.svg|thumb|Extent of the ''Reconquista'' into Almohad territory as of 1157.]]
[[File:Capture de Séville par Ferdinand III.jpg|thumb|Capture of Seville by [[Ferdinand III of Castile]] (painted by [[Francisco Pacheco]])]]
The [[Almoravid]]s were a Muslim militia composed of Berbers, and unlike previous Muslim rulers, they were not so tolerant towards Christians and Jews. Their armies entered the Iberian peninsula on several occasions (1086, 1088, 1093) and defeated King Alfonso at the [[Battle of Sagrajas]] in 1086, but initially their purpose was to unite all the taifas into a single Almoravid Caliphate. Their actions halted the southward expansion of the Christian kingdoms. Their only defeat came at [[Valencia]] in 1094, due to the actions of [[El Cid]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

Meanwhile, Navarre lost all importance under King [[Sancho IV of Navarre|Sancho IV]], for he lost Rioja to [[Sancho II of Castile]], and nearly became the vassal of Aragon. At his death, the Navarrese chose as their king [[Sancho Ramírez]], King of Aragon, who thus became Sancho V of Navarre and I of Aragon. Sancho Ramírez gained international recognition for Aragon, uniting it with Navarre and expanding the borders south, conquering ''Wasqa<sup>t</sup>'' [[Huesca]] deep in the valleys in 1096 and building a fort, El Castellar, 25&nbsp;km from ''Saraqusta<sup>t</sup>'' [[Zaragoza]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

Catalonia came under intense pressure from the taifas of Zaragoza and [[Taifa of Lérida|Lérida]], as well as from internal disputes, as Barcelona suffered a dynastic crisis that led to open war among the smaller counties. But by the 1080s, the situation had calmed down, and the dominion of Barcelona over the smaller counties was restored.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

====Almohads====
{{Main|Almohad Caliphate}}
[[File:La Rendición de Granada - Pradilla.jpg|thumb|''The Surrender of Granada'' by [[Francisco Pradilla Ortiz]]]]
After a brief period of disintegration (the second [[Taifa]] period), the Almohads, the rising power in North Africa, took over most of ''al-Andalus''. However they were decisively defeated at the [[Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa]] (1212) by a Christian coalition, losing almost all the remaining lands of ''al-Andalus'' in the following decades. By 1252 only the [[Emirate of Granada]] remained intact but as a vassal state of Castile.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

==== Granada War and the end of Muslim rule ====
{{Main|Granada War|Treaty of Granada (1491)}}
[[Catholic Monarchs|Ferdinand and Isabella]] completed the ''Reconquista'' with a war against the [[Emirate of Granada]] that started in 1482 and ended with Granada's surrender on 2 January 1492. The Moors in Castile previously numbered "half a million within the realm". By 1492 some 100,000 had died or been enslaved, 200,000 had emigrated, and 200,000 remained in Castile. Many of the Muslim elite, including Granada's former Emir [[Muhammad XII of Granada|Muhammad XII]], who had been given the area of the [[Alpujarras]] mountains as a principality, found life under Christian rule intolerable and emigrated to [[Fez, Morocco|Fez]] in North Africa.{{sfn |Kamen |2005 |pages=37–38}}<ref name=maqri>"نفح الطيب من غصن الاندلس الرطيب" p. 1317.  احمد المقري  المغربي المالكي الاشعري</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Harvey|first=Leonard Patrick|title=Islamic Spain, 1250 to 1500|url={{Google books|td3tcLWvSNkC|page=327|plainurl=yes}}|page=327|publisher=University of Chicago Press|place=Chicago|year=1992|isbn=0-226-31962-8}}</ref>

In 1497, Spanish forces took [[Melilla]], west of Oran, and the island of [[Djerba]], south of Tunis, and went on to more important gains, with the bloody [[Spanish conquest of Oran (1509)|seizure of Oran in 1509]], and the capture of [[Bougie]] and [[Spanish conquest of Tripoli (1510)|Tripoli in 1510]]. The Spanish capture of [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] cost them some 300 men, while the inhabitants suffered between 3,000 and 5,000 killed and another 5,000–6,000 carried off as slaves.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Last Great Muslim Empires|page=138}}</ref> Soon thereafter, however, they faced competition from the rapidly expanding [[Ottoman Empire]] in the east and were pushed back.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Davison |first=Derek |title=Today in European history: the 'Reconquista' ends (1492) |url=https://fx.substack.com/p/today-in-european-history-the-reconquista |access-date=2022-09-13 |website=fx.substack.com |language=en}}</ref>