Editing Punjab, Pakistan (section)

== History ==
{{main|History of Punjab}}

=== Ancient period ===
It is believed that the earliest evidence of human habitation in Punjab traces to the [[Soon Valley|Soan Valley]] of the [[Pothohar Plateau|Pothohar]], between the [[Indus]] and the [[Jhelum river]]s, where [[Soanian|Soanian culture]] developed between 774,000 BC and 11,700 BC. This period goes back to the first interglacial period in the [[Cryogenian|second Ice Age]], from which remnants of stone and flint tools have been found.{{sfn|Singh|1989|p=1}} The Punjab region was the site of one of the earliest [[cradle of civilization]]s, the [[Bronze Age]] [[Harrapan civilization]] that flourished from about 3000 B.C. and declined rapidly 1,000 years later, following the [[Indo-Aryan migrations]] that overran the region in waves between 1500 and 500 B.C.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Minahan |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=abNDLZQ6quYC&pg=PA257 |title=Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia |date=2012 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-659-1 |pages=257–259 |language=en |access-date=21 August 2022 |archive-date=18 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118182901/https://books.google.com/books?id=abNDLZQ6quYC&pg=PA257 |url-status=live }}</ref> The migrating Indo-Aryan tribes gave rise to the [[Iron Age]] [[Vedic civilization]], which lasted till 500 BC. During this era, the [[Rigveda]] was composed in [[Punjab]],{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=37}} laying the foundation of [[Hinduism]]. Frequent intertribal wars in the [[Vedic period|post-Vedic period]] stimulated the growth of larger groupings ruled by chieftains and kings, who ruled local kingdoms known as [[Mahajanapadas]].<ref name=":9" /> Achaemenid emperor [[Darius the Great]], in 518 BCE crossed the Indus and annex the regions up to the [[Jhelum River]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=André-Salvini |first=Béatrice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJnaKu9DdNEC |title=Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia |date=2005 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-24731-4 |language=en |access-date=14 February 2022 |archive-date=18 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118182927/https://books.google.com/books?id=kJnaKu9DdNEC |url-status=live }}</ref> Taxila is considered to be the site of one of the oldest education centre of South Asia and was part of the Achaemenid province of Hindush.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Samad|first=Rafi U.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNUwBYGYgxsC&pg=PA33|title=The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys|date=2011|publisher=Algora Publishing|isbn=978-0-87586-859-2|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Minahan |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=abNDLZQ6quYC&pg=PA257 |title=Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia |date=2012-08-30 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-659-1 |language=en}}</ref>

One of the early kings in Punjab was [[Porus]], who fought the famous [[Battle of the Hydaspes]] against [[Alexander the Great]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Bosworth |first=Albert Brian |title=Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1993 |pages=125–130 |chapter=The campaign of the Hydaspes}}</ref> The battle is thought to have resulted in a decisive [[Greeks|Greek]] victory; however, A. B. Bosworth warns against an uncritical reading of Greek sources who were obviously exaggerative.<ref name=":6" /> Porus refused to surrender and wandered about atop an elephant, until he was wounded and his force routed.<ref name=":6" /> When asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated, Porus replied "Treat me as a king would treat another king".{{sfn|Rogers|p=200}} Despite the apparently one-sided results, Alexander was impressed by Porus and chose to not depose him.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Bosworth |first=Albert Brian |title=Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1993 |chapter=From the Hydaspes to the Southern Ocean}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Anson |first=Edward M. |title=Alexander the Great: Themes and Issues |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2013 |isbn=9781441193797 |pages=151}}</ref>{{sfn|Roy|2004|pp=23–28}} Not only was his territory reinstated but also expanded with Alexander's forces annexing the territories of Glausaes, who ruled to the northeast of Porus' kingdom.<ref name=":7" /> The battle is historically significant because it resulted in the syncretism of ancient Greek political and cultural influences to the Indian subcontinent, yielding works such as Greco-Buddhist art, which continued to have an impact for the ensuing centuries.

[[Multan]] was the noted centre of excellence of the region which was attacked by the Greek army during the era of [[Alexander the Great]]. The Malli tribe together with nearby tribes gathered an army of 90,000-100,000 personnel to face the Greek army. This was perhaps the largest army faced by the Greeks in the entire Indian subcontinent.{{sfn|Amjad|1989|p={{page needed|date=September 2022}}}} During the siege of the city's citadel, Alexander leaped into the inner area of the citadel, where he faced the Mallians' leader. Alexander was wounded by an arrow that had penetrated his lung, leaving him severely injured. The city was conquered after a fierce battle.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tareekh-e-Pakistan (Wasti Ahad) |url=https://yahyaamjad.com/books/tareekh-e-pakistan-wasti-ahad/ |access-date=2023-11-21 |website=Yahya Amjad |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Arrian. Indica. English {{!}} The Online Books Page |url=http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/lookupname?key=Arrian.%20Indica.%20English |access-date=2022-09-01 |website=onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu}}</ref>

The region was then divided between the [[Maurya Empire]] and the Greco-Bactrian kingdom in 302 B.C.E. Menander I Soter conquered Punjab and made [[Sagala]] (present-day [[Sialkot]]) the capital of the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]].<ref name="Hazel 2013">{{cite book |last=Hazel |first=John |title=Who's Who in the Greek World |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=9781134802241 |page=155 |quote=Menander king in India, known locally as Milinda, born at a village named Kalasi near Alasanda (Alexandria-in-the-Caucasus), and who was himself the son of a king. After conquering the Punjab, where he made Sagala his capital, he made an expedition across northern India and visited Patna, the capital of the Mauraya empire, though he did not succeed in conquering this land as he appears to have been overtaken by wars on the north-west frontier with Eucratides.}}</ref><ref name="Ahir 1971">{{cite book |last=Ahir |first=D. C. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.49756 |title=Buddhism in the Punjab, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh |publisher=Maha Bodhi Society of India |year=1971 |page=31 |oclc=1288206 |quote=Demetrius died in 166 B.C., and Apollodotus, who was a near relation of the King died in 161 B.C. After his death, Menander carved out a kingdom in Punjab. Thus from 161 B.C. onward Menander was the ruler of Punjab till his death in 145 B.C. or 130 B.C.}}</ref> Menander is noted for becoming a patron and converting to Greco-Buddhism and he is widely regarded as the greatest of the Indo-Greek kings.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Menander {{!}} Indo-Greek king |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Menander-Indo-Greek-king |access-date=2021-09-06 |website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]}}</ref>

=== Medieval period ===
Following the [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent]] at the beginning of the 8th century, [[Arab]] armies of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] penetrated into South Asia introducing [[Islam]] into the [[Punjab]]. First, Islam was introduced into the Southern Punjab in the opening decades of the eighth century. By the 16th century, [[Muslims]] were the majority in the region and an elaborate network of [[mosque]]s and [[Mausoleums of Multan|mausoleums]] marked the landscape. Local [[Punjabi Muslims|Punjabi Muslim]] converts constituted the majority of this [[Ummah|Muslim community]], and as far for the mechanisms of conversion, the sources of the period emphasize the recitation of the [[Conversion to Islam|Islamic confession of faith]] (''[[shahada]]''), the performance of the [[Khitan (circumcision)|circumcision]], and the ingestion of cow-meat.<ref name="oxford2">{{Cite book |last1=Rambo |first1=Lewis R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U03gAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA490 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Religious Conversion |last2=Farhadian |first2=Charles E. |date=6 March 2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-971354-7 |pages=489–491 |quote=First, Islam was introduced into the southern Punjab in the opening decades of the eighth century. By the sixteenth century, Muslims were the majority in the region and an elaborate network of mosques and mausoleums marked the landscape. Local converts constituted the majority of this Muslim community, and as far for the mechanisms of conversion, the sources of the period emphasize the recitation of the Islamic confession of faith (shahada), the performance of the circumsicion (indri vaddani), and the ingestion of cow-meat (bhas khana). |access-date=11 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927082337/https://books.google.com/books?id=U03gAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA490#v=onepage&q&f=false |archive-date=27 September 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Islam]] emerged as the major power in Punjab after the [[Umayyad|Umayyad army]] led by [[Muhammad ibn al-Qasim]] conquered the region [[History of Multan#Medieval era|in 711 AD]].<ref name=":9" /> The city of [[Multan]] became a centre of Islam. After the Umayyads conquered the key cities of [[Uch]] and Multan, they ruled the far areas of Punjab and included [[Kashmir]]. Islam spread rapidly.<ref name="Hudud 1970">{{Cite book |last=Hudud |first=al-Alam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tN9jMwEACAAJ&q=hudud+al+alam |title=Hudud Al-Alam, 'the Regions of the World': A Persian Geography, 327A.H. – 982A.D |date=1970 |publisher=Luzac |language=en}}</ref>

According to local traditions, [[Baba Ratan Hindi]] was a trader from [[Punjab]] who was one of the non-Arab [[Sahabah|companions of Prophet Muhammad]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Suvorova |first=Anna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QK0aLjQtX2cC&dq=baba+ratan&pg=PA220 |title=Muslim Saints of South Asia: The Eleventh to Fifteenth Centuries |date=2004-07-22 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-37006-1 |page=220 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Köprülü |first=Mehmet Fuat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_v6IWkCLnEwC&dq=baba+ratan&pg=PA79 |title=Early Mystics in Turkish Literature |date=2006 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-36686-1 |pages=79 |language=en}}</ref> He was reportedly a trader who used to take goods to [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]]. There is also a [[Sufi shrine|dargah]] named after him, the Haji Ratan Dargah, in [[Bathinda]], where he settled after his conversion to [[Islam]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=PARIHAR |first=SUBHASH |date=2001 |title=The Dargāh of Bābā Ḥājī Ratan at Bhatinda |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20837077 |journal=Islamic Studies |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=105–132 |doi=10.52541/isiri.v40i1.5057 |issn=0578-8072 |jstor=20837077}}</ref> Muslims who migrated to Pakistan during the [[partition of India]] in 1947 still venerate him as Baba Haji Ratan.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Snehi |first=Yogesh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6YiUDwAAQBAJ&dq=baba+ratan+partition&pg=PT190 |title=Spatializing Popular Sufi Shrines in Punjab: Dreams, Memories, Territoriality |date=2019-04-24 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-429-51563-7 |pages=190 |language=en}}</ref>

In the ninth century, the [[Hindu Shahis|Hindu Shahi]] dynasty originating from the region of Oddiyana replaced the Taank kingdom in the Punjab, ruling much of Punjab along with eastern Afghanistan.<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rahman |first=Abdul |date=2002 |title=New Light on the Khingal, Turk and the Hindu Sahis |url=http://journals.uop.edu.pk/papers/AP_v15_37to42.pdf |journal=Ancient Pakistan |volume=XV |pages=37–42 |quote=The Hindu Śāhis were therefore neither Bhattis, or Janjuas, nor Brahmans. They were simply Uḍis/Oḍis. It can now be seen that the term Hindu Śāhi is a misnomer and, based as it is merely upon religious discrimination, should be discarded and forgotten. The correct name is Uḍi or Oḍi Śāhi dynasty.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Meister |first=Michael W. |date=2005 |title=The Problem of Platform Extensions at Kafirkot North |url=http://journals.uop.edu.pk/papers/AP_v16_41to48.pdf |journal=Ancient Pakistan |volume=XVI |pages=41–48 |quote=Rehman (2002: 41) makes a good case for calling the Hindu Śāhis by a more accurate name, "Uḍi Śāhis".}}</ref> In the 10th century, the tribe of the [[Gakhars]]/[[Khokhars]], formed a large part of the Hindu Shahi army according to the Persian historian [[Firishta]].{{sfn|Rehman|1976|pp=48–50}}

'''Ghaznavid'''

The [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] [[Ghaznavids]] in the tenth century attacked the regions of Punjab. [[Multan]] and [[Uch]] were conquered after 3 attacks and Multan's ruler Abul Fateh Daud was defeated,<ref>{{Cite book |last=MacLean |first=Derryl N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xxAVAAAAIAAJ |title=Religion and Society in Arab Sind |date=1989 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-08551-0 |language=en}}</ref> famous Sun Temple was destroyed. Ghaznavids overthrew the Hindu Shahis and consequently ruled for 157 years, gradually declining as a power until the [[Ghurid]] conquests of key Punjab cities of Uch, Multan and [[Lahore]] by [[Muhammad of Ghor]] in 1186, deposing the last Ghaznavid ruler [[Khusrau Malik]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mehta |first=Jaswant Lal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iUk5k5AN54sC&pg=PA76 |title=Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India |date=1979 |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |isbn=978-81-207-0617-0 |pages=76 |language=en}}</ref>

Following the death of [[Muhammad of Ghor]] in 1206, the Ghurid state fragmented and was replaced in northern India by the Delhi Sultanate and for some time independent sultanates ruled by various Sultans.{{sfn|Amjad|1989|p={{page needed|date=September 2022}}}} The [[Delhi Sultanate]] ruled Punjab for the next three hundred years, led by five unrelated dynasties, the [[Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)|Mamluks]], [[Khalji dynasty|Khalajis]], [[Tughlaq dynasty|Tughlaqs]], [[Sayyid dynasty|Sayyids]] and [[Lodi dynasty|Lodis]].

'''Delhi Sultanate'''

'''Tughlaqs'''

[[Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq|Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq]], the former governor of [[Multan]] and [[Dipalpur]] founded the Tughlaq dynasty in Delhi and ruled the subcontinent region. Earlier, he served as the governor of Multan and fought 28 battles against Mongols from there and saved Punjab and Sindh regions from the advances of Mongols and survived. After his death, his son [[Muhammad bin Tughluq|Muhammad Tughlaq]] became the emperor.{{sfn|Amjad|1989|p={{page needed|date=September 2022}}}}

'''Sayyid Dynasty'''

The 15th century saw the rise of many prominent Muslims from Punjab. [[Khizr Khan]] established the [[Sayyid dynasty]], the fourth dynasty of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], with four rulers ruling from 1414 to 1451 for 37 years.<ref name="mrpislam">See:

* M. Reza Pirbha, Reconsidering Islam in a South Asian Context, {{ISBN|978-9004177581}}, Brill
* The Islamic frontier in the east: Expansion into South Asia, Journal of South Asian Studies, 4(1), pp. 91–109
* Sookoohy M., Bhadreswar – Oldest Islamic Monuments in India, {{ISBN|978-9004083417}}, Brill Academic; see discussion of earliest raids in Gujarat</ref> The first ruler of the dynasty, [[Khizr Khan]], who was the [[Timurid Empire|Timurid]] vassal of [[Multan]], conquered Delhi in 1414, while the rulers proclaimed themselves the Sultans of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] under [[Mubarak Shah (Sayyid dynasty)|Mubarak Shah]],<ref>{{cite book |author=V. D. Mahajan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMWSQuf4oSIC&dq=sultan+mubarak+shah+timur++caliph&pg=RA1-PA240 |title=History of Medieval India |date=2007 |publisher=S. Chand |isbn=9788121903646}}</ref><ref name="Iqtidar Alam Khan 2008 103">{{cite book |author=Iqtidar Alam Khan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pzZFUcDpDzsC&dq=sultan+mubarak+shah&pg=PA103 |title=Historical Dictionary of Medieval India |date=2008 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=9780810855038 |page=103}}</ref> which succeeded the [[Tughlaq dynasty]] and ruled the Sultanate until they were displaced by the [[Lodi dynasty]] in 1451.

Khizr Khan was originally a noble in the Delhi Sultanate during the [[Tughlaq Dynasty]] and was the governor of Multan under Sultan [[Firuz Shah Tughlaq|Firuz Shah]]. He was expelled from the city by the Muin tribes under Sarang Khan who occupied Multan in 1395, an Indian Muslim and the brother of Mallu Iqbal Khan, who was the de facto ruler of Delhi.<ref>{{cite book |author1=John F. Richards |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h0_xhdCScQkC&dq=mallu+khan+slave&pg=PA207 |title=Expanding Frontiers in South Asian and World History: Essays in Honour of John F. Richards |author2=David Gilmartin |author3=Munis D. Faruqui |author4=Richard M. Eaton |author5=Sunil Kuma | date=7 March 2013 |page=247 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-1-107-03428-0 |quote=Mallu Khan(also known as Iqbal Khan, a former slave}}</ref> Sarang Khan was aided by the servants of Malik Mardan Bhatti, a former governor of Multan and the grandfather of Khizr Khan by adoption.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Surinder |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZSGzDwAAQBAJ&dq=malik+mardan+bhatti&pg=PT298 |title=The Making of Medieval Panjab: Politics, Society and Culture c. 1000–c. 1500 |date=2019-09-30 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-76068-2 |language=en}}</ref>

In 1398, [[Timur]] attacked the Punjab region. After his invasion, Khizr Khan established the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. According to [[Richard M. Eaton]], Khizr Khan was the son of a Punjabi chieftain.<ref name=":02">{{cite book |author=Richard M. Eaton |title=India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765 |publisher=University of California Press |year=2019 |isbn=978-0520325128 |page=117}}</ref> He was a [[Khokhar]] chieftain who travelled to Samarkand and profited from the contacts he made with the [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid society]].<ref>{{Cite book |author=Orsini, Francesca |title=After Timur left : culture and circulation in fifteenth-century North India |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-19-945066-4 |pages=49 |oclc=913785752}}</ref>

Following Timur's 1398 [[Sack of Delhi (1398)|Sack of Delhi]], he appointed [[Khizr Khan]] as deputy of [[Multan]] ([[Punjab region|Punjab]]). He held Lahore, Dipalpur, Multan and Upper Sindh.<ref>{{cite book |author=Kenneth Pletcher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VsujRFvaHI8C&dq=khizr+khan+sind&pg=PA132 |title=The History of India |date=2010 |isbn=9781615301225 |page=138| publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=V. D. Mahajan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMWSQuf4oSIC&dq=khizr+khan+sind&pg=RA1-PA229 |title=History of Medieval India |date=2007 |isbn=9788121903646 |page=229| publisher=S. Chand }}</ref> Collecting his forces in Multan, Khizr Khan defeated and killed Mallu Iqbal Khan in Delhi in 1405.<ref>{{cite book |author=Jaswant Lal Mehta |title=Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India: Volume 2 |date=1979 |page=247}}</ref> He then captured Delhi on 28 May 1414 thereby establishing the Sayyid dynasty.{{sfn|Kumar|2020|p=583}} Khizr Khan did not take up the title of [[Sultan]], but continued the fiction of his allegiance to Timur as ''Rayat-i-Ala'' ([[vassal]]) of the [[Timurids]] - initially that of Timur, and later his son [[Shahrukh Mirza|Shah Rukh]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OghDAAAAYAAJ&q=It+is+generally+acknowledged+that+Khizr+Khan+continued+to+recognise+Timur+and+his+successors+,+Shah+Rukh+,+as+his+nominal+overlords+.+But+later+on+under+his+succesor+,+Mubarak+Khan+,+this+%27+fiction+%27+of+allegiance+to+the+Timurid+rulers |title=Proceedings:Volume 55 |publisher=Indian History Congress |year=1995 |page=216}}</ref><ref>Mahajan, V.D. (1991, reprint 2007). ''History of Medieval India'', Part I, New Delhi: S. Chand, {{ISBN|81-219-0364-5}}, p.237</ref> After the accession of Khizr Khan, the Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Sindh were reunited under the Delhi Sultanate, where he spent his time subduing rebellions.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F3QbAAAAIAAJ&q=khizr+khan+sindh |title=Rajasthan [district Gazetteers] Bharatpur |date=1971 |publisher=Printed at Government Central Press |page=52}}</ref>

Khizr Khan was succeeded by his son Sayyid [[Mubarak Shah (Sayyid dynasty)|Mubarak Shah]] after his death on 20 May 1421. Mubarak Shah referred to himself as ''Muizz-ud-Din Mubarak Shah'' on his coins, removing the Timurid name with the name of the [[Caliphate|Caliph]], and declared himself a Shah.<ref name="Iqtidar Alam Khan 2008 103"/> A detailed account of his reign is available in the ''Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi'' written by [[Yahya bin Ahmad Sirhindi|Yahya-bin-Ahmad Sirhindi]]. After the death of Mubarak Shah, his nephew, [[Muhammad Shah (Sayyid dynasty)|Muhammad Shah]] ascended the throne and styled himself as Sultan Muhammad Shah. Just before his death, he called his son Sayyid [[Alam Shah|Ala-ud-Din Shah]] from [[Budaun|Badaun]], and nominated him as successor.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nizami |first=Khaliq Ahmad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=axluAAAAMAAJ |title=Supplement to Elliot & Dowson's History of India: Ghaznavids & the Ghurids |date=1981 |publisher=Idarah-i Adabiyat-i Delli |language=en}}</ref>

The last ruler of the Sayyids, Ala-ud-Din, voluntarily abdicated the throne of the Delhi Sultanate in favour of [[Bahlul Khan Lodi]] on 19 April 1451, and left for Badaun, where he died in 1478.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bosworth |first=Clifford Edmund |title=The New Islamic Dynasties |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0231107143 |page=304}}</ref>[[File:Khizr_Khan_(4).jpg|thumb|180x180px|Silver copper coin of [[Khizr Khan]], founder of the [[Sayyid dynasty]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Richard M. Eaton |title=India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765 |year=2019 |isbn=978-0520325128 |page=117 |publisher=University of California Press |language=en |quote=The career of Khizr Khan, a Punjabi chieftain belonging to the Khokar clan...}}</ref>]]'''Langah Sultanate'''

In 1445, Sultan Qutbudin, chief of ''[[Langah (clan)|Langah tribe]]'',<ref name="Ahmed 1984 pp. 428–434">{{cite journal |last=Ahmed |first=Iftikhar |year=1984 |title=Territorial Distribution of Jatt Castes in Punjab c. 1595 – c. 1881 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |publisher=Indian History Congress |volume=45 |pages=429, 432 |issn=2249-1937 |jstor=44140224}}</ref><ref name="Mubārak Blochmann 1891 p.321">{{cite book |last1=Mubārak |first1=A.F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L8IXAAAAYAAJ |title=The Ain I Akbari |last2=Blochmann |first2=H. |publisher=Asiatic Society of Bengal |year=1891 |series=Bibliotheca Indica |page=321 |access-date=2022-07-28 |volume=2}}</ref><ref name="Lambrick p.212">{{cite book |last=Lambrick |first=H. T. |title=Sind : a general introduction |date=1975 |publisher=Sindhi Adabi Board |isbn=0-19-577220-2 |publication-place=Hyderabad |page=212 |oclc=2404471}}</ref> established the [[Langah Sultanate]] in [[Multan]]. The Sultanate included regions of southern and central Punjab and some areas of present-day Khyber. A large number of Baloch settlers arrived and the towns of Dera Ghazi Khan and Dera Ismail Khan were founded.{{sfn|Roseberry|1987|p={{page needed|date=September 2022}}}}

During the most of 15th century, the [[Khokhars]] and [[Gakhars]] tribes were in general revolt in the Pothohar region. [[Jasrath Khokhar]] was one of their major chiefs who helped [[Zayn al-Abidin the Great|Sultan Zain Ul Abideen]] of [[Kashmir Sultanate]] to gain his throne and ruled over vast tracts of Jammu and [[Pothohar Plateau|North Punjab]]. He also conquered Delhi for a brief period in 1431 but was driven out by [[Mubarak Shah II|Mubarak Shah]].{{sfnp|Elliot|Dowson|1872|loc=Chapter XXI Tárikh-i Mubárak Sháhí, of Yahyá bin Ahmad}}

=== Modern period ===
'''Mughal Era'''

The [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] came to power in the early sixteenth century and gradually expanded to control all of Punjab.<ref name="History">{{Cite book |last=History |first=Hourly |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IBmUzQEACAAJ&q=mughal+empire |title=Mughal Empire: A History from Beginning to End |date=June 2020 |publisher=Independently Published |isbn=979-8-6370-3729-2}}</ref> During Mughal period Punjab region was divided into two provinces; [[Subah of Multan|Province of Multan]] and  [[Subah of Lahore|Province of Lahore]].  The '''Subah of Lahore''' was one of the three ''[[subah]]s'' (provinces) of the [[Mughal Empire]] in the [[Punjab|Punjab region]], alongside [[Subah of Multan|Multan]] and Delhi subahs, encompassing the northern, central and eastern [[Punjab]].<ref name="lally">{{Citation |last=Lally |first=Jagjeet |title=Environment |date=2021-04-01 |work=India and the Silk Roads: The History of a Trading World |pages=21–46 |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/41237/chapter/350737136 |access-date= |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |language=en |doi=10.1093/oso/9780197581070.003.0002 |isbn=978-0-19-758107-0}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Wahi |first=Tripta |title=Irrigation, State and Society in Pre-colonial India |publisher=Nehru Memorial Museum and Library |year=2013 |isbn=9789383650002 |pages=3}}</ref> It was created as one of the original 12 [[Subah]]s of the Mughal Empire under the administrative reforms carried by [[Akbar]] in 1580. The province ceased to exist after the death of its last viceroy, [[Adina Beg]] in 1758, with large parts being incorporated into [[Durrani Empire]]. Collectively, Lahore and [[Subah of Multan|Multan subahs]], and parts of Delhi subah, comprised ''Mughal Punjab''.<ref name="lally" /><ref name=":12" />

During the Mughal era, [[Saadullah Khan (Mughal Empire)|Saadullah Khan]], born into a family of Punjabi Muslim agriculturalist from [[Chiniot]] remained the [[Grand vizier]] and [[Vakil-i-Mutlaq]] of the Mughal Empire in the period 1645–1656, during the reign of [[Shah Jahan]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hasan |first=Ibn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0EkfvgAACAAJ |title=The Central Structure of the Mughal Empire and Its Practical Working Up to the Year 1657 |date=1967 |publisher=Pakistan branch, Oxford University Press |pages=201 |language=en}}</ref> Other prominent Muslims from Punjab who rose to nobility during the Mughal Era include [[Wazir Khan (Lahore)|Wazir Khan]], [[Adina Beg|Adina Beg Arain]], and [[Shahbaz Khan Kamboh]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Talbot |first1=Ian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9edvEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT30 |title=Colonial Lahore: A History of the City and Beyond |last2=Kamran |first2=Tahir |date=15 February 2022 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-765594-8 |page=30 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dhavan |first=Purnima |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Mughal World |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-190-22264-2 |editor-last=Eaton |editor-first=Richard M. |editor-link=Richard M. Eaton |chapter=Warriors and Zamindars in Mughal Punjab |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190222642.013.13 |editor-last2=Sreenivasan |editor-first2=Ramya |editor-link2=Ramya Sreenivasan |chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34708/chapter-abstract/296421480?redirectedFrom=fulltext}}</ref><ref>Islamic Thought and Movements in the Subcontinent, 711–1947, 1979, p 278, Syed Moinul Haq.</ref>

The Mughal Empire ruled the region until it was severely weakened in the eighteenth century.<ref name=":9" /> As Mughal power weakened, Afghan rulers of [[Durrani dynasty]] took control of the region.<ref name=":9" />

The Sikh Empire ruled Punjab from 1799 until the British annexed it in 1849 following the [[First Anglo-Sikh War|First]] and [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grewal |first1=J. S. |series=The New Cambridge History of India |title=The Sikhs of the Punjab |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-63764-3 |pages=126–128 |edition=Revised |chapter=The Sikh empire (1799–1849) - Chapter 6}}</ref>

'''British Rule'''
[[File:Map of the Punjab (Panjab) region, showing the various doabs, ca.1880.jpg|thumb|Punjab Region on World Map under the [[British Rule]]]]
Most of the Punjabi homeland formed a province of British India, though a number of small [[princely state]]s retained local rulers who recognized British authority.<ref name=":9" /> The Punjab with its rich farmlands became one of the most important colonial assets.<ref name=":9" /> Lahore was a noted center of learning and culture, and [[Rawalpindi]] became an important military installation.<ref name=":9" />

Most Punjabis supported the British during [[World War I]], providing men and resources to the war effort even though the Punjab remained a source of anti-colonial activities.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hibbert |first1=Christopher |title=The great mutiny: India 1857 |date=1980 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-004752-3 |location=Harmondsworth |page=163}}</ref> Disturbances in the region increased as the war continued.<ref name=":9" /> At the end of the war, high casualty rates, heavy taxation, inflation, and a widespread influenza epidemic disrupted Punjabi society.<ref name=":9" /> In 1919 a British officer ordered his troops to fire on a crowd of demonstrators, mostly Sikhs in Amritsar. The [[Jallianwala Bagh massacre|Jallianwala massacre]] fueled the [[Indian independence movement]].<ref name=":9" /> Nationalists declared the independence of India from Lahore in 1930 but were quickly suppressed.<ref name=":9" />

When the Second World War broke out, nationalism in British India had already divided into religious movements.<ref name=":9" /> Many Sikhs and other minorities supported the Hindus, who promised a secular multicultural and multireligious society, and [[Lahore Resolution|Muslim leaders in Lahore passed a resolution]] to work for a [[Islam in Pakistan|Muslim Pakistan]], making the Punjab region a center of growing conflict between Indian and Pakistani nationalists.<ref name=":9" /> At the end of the war, the British granted separate independence to India and Pakistan, setting off massive communal violence as Muslims fled to Pakistan and Hindu and Sikh Punjabis fled east to India.<ref name=":9" />

The [[British India|British Raj]] had major political, cultural, philosophical, and literary consequences in the Punjab, including the establishment of a new system of education. During the [[Indian independence movement|independence movement]], many Punjabis played a significant role, including [[Madan Lal Dhingra]], [[Sukhdev Thapar]], [[Sardar Ajit Singh|Ajit Singh Sandhu]], [[Bhagat Singh]], [[Udham Singh]], [[Kartar Singh Sarabha]], [[Bhai Parmanand]], [[Choudhry Rahmat Ali]], and [[Lala Lajpat Rai]].

'''After Independence'''

At the time of partition in 1947, the province was split into East and West Punjab. [[East Punjab]] (48%) became part of India, while [[West Punjab]] (52%) became part of Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pakgeotagging.blogspot.co.uk/2014/10/partition-of-punjab-in-1947.html |title=Pakistan Geotagging: Partition of Punjab in 1947 |access-date=11 February 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208221714/http://pakgeotagging.blogspot.co.uk/2014/10/partition-of-punjab-in-1947.html |archive-date=8 February 2016|date=3 October 2014 }}. Daily Times (10 May 2012). Retrieved 12 July 2013.</ref> The Punjab bore the brunt of the [[Civil disorder|civil unrest]] following [[Partition of India|partition]], with casualties estimated to be in the millions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Talbot|first1=Ian|title=Partition of India: The Human Dimension|journal=Cultural and Social History|year=2009|volume=6|issue=4|pages=403–410|quote=The number of casualties remains a matter of dispute, with figures being claimed that range from 200,000 to 2 million victims.|doi=10.2752/147800409X466254|s2cid=147110854}}</ref><ref name="dcosta2011">{{Cite book|title=Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia|last=D'Costa |first=Bina |publisher=Routledge|year=2011|isbn=978-0415565660|page=53}}</ref><ref name="Silence2000">{{Cite book |url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/b/butalia-silence.html|title=The Other Side of Silence: Voices From the Partition of India|last=Butalia|first=Urvashi|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2000}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Muslims in India Since 1947: Islamic Perspectives on Inter-Faith Relations |last=Sikand|first=Yoginder |publisher=Routledge|year=2004|isbn=978-1134378258|page=5}}</ref>

Another major consequence of partition was the sudden shift towards religious homogeneity that occurred in all districts across Punjab owing to the new international border that cut through the province. This rapid demographic shift was primarily due to wide-scale migration but also caused by large-scale [[Religious persecution#Religious cleansing|religious cleansing]] riots which were witnessed across the region at the time. According to historical demographer [[Tim Dyson]], in the eastern regions of Punjab that ultimately became [[Punjab, India|Indian Punjab]] following independence, districts that were 66% Hindu in 1941 became 80% Hindu in 1951; those that were 20% Sikh became 50% Sikh in 1951. Conversely, in the western regions of Punjab that ultimately became Pakistani Punjab, all districts became almost exclusively Muslim by 1951.{{sfn|Dyson|2018|pp=188–189}}