Editing Psychology (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of psychology}}
{{For timeline}}
The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, and Persia all engaged in the philosophical study of psychology. In Ancient Egypt the [[Ebers Papyrus]] mentioned [[clinical depression|depression]] and thought disorders.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Okasha |first1=Ahmed  |date=2005 |title=Mental Health in Egypt |journal=The Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=116–25 |pmid=16342608 }}</ref> Historians note that Greek philosophers, including [[Thales]], [[Plato]], and [[Aristotle]] (especially in his {{lang|la|[[On the Soul|De Anima]]}} treatise),<ref>"[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/ Aristotle's Psychology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100709122031/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/ |date=9 July 2010 }}". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.</ref> addressed the workings of the mind.<ref>Green, C.D. & Groff, P.R. (2003). ''Early psychological thought: Ancient accounts of mind and soul.'' Westport, Connecticut: Praeger.</ref> As early as the 4th century BC, the Greek physician [[Hippocrates]] theorized that [[mental disorder]]s had physical rather than supernatural causes.<ref>T.L. Brink. (2008) Psychology: A Student Friendly Approach. "Unit One: The Definition and History of Psychology." pp 9 [http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/TLBrink_PSYCH01.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120724142236/http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/TLBrink_PSYCH01.pdf|date=24 July 2012}}.</ref> In 387 BCE, Plato suggested that the brain is where mental processes take place, and in 335 BCE Aristotle suggested that it was the heart.<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 February 2018|title=Psychology: Definitions, branches, history, and how to become one|url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/154874|access-date=20 September 2021|website=www.medicalnewstoday.com|language=en|archive-date=20 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210320030424/https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/154874|url-status=live}}</ref>

In China, the foundations of psychological thought emerged from the philosophical works of ancient thinkers like [[Laozi]] and [[Confucius]], as well as the teachings of [[Buddhism]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Natural harmony in Taoism— a cornerstone of Chinese society |url=https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/views/views/natural-harmony-in-taoism-a-cornerstone-of-chinese-society-1516031957 |access-date=2024-03-15 |website=The Financial Express |language=en}}</ref> This body of knowledge drew insights from introspection, observation, and techniques for focused thinking and behavior. It viewed the universe as comprising physical and mental realms, along with the interplay between the two.<ref>Shi, Y. (2019). The dawn of psychology in China. In W. G. Bringmann et al. (Eds.), A Pictorial History of Psychology (pp. 22-27). Quintessence Publishing Co. Ltd.</ref> Chinese philosophy also emphasized purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. An ancient text known as ''[[Huangdi Neijing|The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine]]'' identifies the brain as the nexus of wisdom and sensation, includes theories of personality based on [[Yin and yang|yin–yang]] balance, and analyzes mental disorder in terms of physiological and social disequilibria. Chinese scholarship that focused on the brain advanced during the [[Qing dynasty]] with the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi (1611–1671), [[Liu Zhi (scholar)|Liu Zhi]] (1660–1730), and Wang Qingren (1768–1831). Wang Qingren emphasized the importance of the brain as the center of the nervous system, linked mental disorder with brain diseases, investigated the causes of dreams and [[insomnia]], and advanced a theory of [[Lateralization of brain function|hemispheric lateralization]] in brain function.<ref name=HsuehGuo>Yeh Hsueh and Benyu Guo, "China", in Baker (ed.), ''Oxford Handbook of the History of Psychology'' (2012).</ref>

Influenced by [[Hinduism]], [[Indian philosophy]] explored distinctions in types of awareness. A central idea of the ''[[Upanishads]]'' and other [[Vedic period|Vedic]] texts that formed the foundations of Hinduism was the distinction between a person's transient mundane self and their [[Ātman (Hinduism)|eternal, unchanging soul]]. Divergent Hindu doctrines and [[Buddhism]] have challenged this hierarchy of selves, but have all emphasized the importance of reaching higher awareness. [[Yoga]] encompasses a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal. [[Theosophy]], a religion established by [[Russian Americans|Russian-American]] philosopher [[Helena Blavatsky]], drew inspiration from these doctrines during her time in [[British Raj|British India]].<ref name=Paranjpe>Anand C. Paranjpe, "From Tradition through Colonialism to Globalization: Reflections on the History of Psychology in India", in Brock (ed.), ''Internationalizing the History of Psychology'' (2006).</ref><ref name=ptraju>PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0887061394}}, pages 35–36</ref>

Psychology was of interest to [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment thinkers]] in Europe. In Germany, [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] (1646–1716) applied his principles of calculus to the mind, arguing that mental activity took place on an indivisible continuum. He suggested that the difference between conscious and unconscious awareness is only a matter of degree. [[Christian Wolff (philosopher)|Christian Wolff]] identified psychology as its own science, writing ''Psychologia Empirica'' in 1732 and ''Psychologia Rationalis'' in 1734. [[Immanuel Kant]] advanced the idea of [[anthropology]] as a discipline, with psychology an important subdivision. Kant, however, explicitly rejected the idea of an [[experimental psychology]], writing that "the empirical doctrine of the soul can also never approach chemistry even as a systematic art of analysis or experimental doctrine, for in it the manifold of inner observation can be separated only by mere division in thought, and cannot then be held separate and recombined at will (but still less does another thinking subject suffer himself to be experimented upon to suit our purpose), and even observation by itself already changes and displaces the state of the observed object."

In 1783, Ferdinand Ueberwasser (1752–1812) designated himself ''Professor of Empirical Psychology and Logic'' and gave lectures on scientific psychology, though these developments were soon overshadowed by the [[Napoleonic Wars]].<ref name="Schwarz 2016">{{cite journal | last1=Schwarz | first1=Katharina A. | last2=Pfister | first2=Roland | title=Scientific psychology in the 18th century: A historical rediscovery | journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science | publisher=SAGE Publications | volume=11 | issue=3 | year=2016 | issn=1745-6916 | doi=10.1177/1745691616635601 | pages=399–407| pmid=27217252 | s2cid=6784135 }}</ref> At the end of the Napoleonic era, Prussian authorities discontinued the Old University of Münster.<ref name="Schwarz 2016" /> Having consulted philosophers [[Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel|Hegel]] and [[Johann Friedrich Herbart|Herbart]], however, in 1825 [[Prussia|the Prussian state]] established psychology as a mandatory discipline in its rapidly expanding and highly influential [[Prussian education system|educational system]]. However, this discipline did not yet embrace experimentation.<ref name=Horst>Horst U.K. Gundlach, "Germany", in Baker (ed.), ''Oxford Handbook of the History of Psychology'' (2012).</ref> In England, early psychology involved [[phrenology]] and the response to social problems including alcoholism, violence, and the country's crowded "lunatic" asylums.<ref>Alan Collins, "England", in Baker (ed.), ''Oxford Handbook of the History of Psychology'' (2012).</ref>

=== Beginning of experimental psychology ===
[[File:James McKeen Cattell.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|[[James McKeen Cattell]], the first psychologist in the [[United States]]]]
[[File:Wundt-research-group.jpg|thumb|[[Wilhelm Wundt]] (seated), a German psychologist, with colleagues in his psychological laboratory, the first of its kind, {{Circa|1880}}]]
[[File:One of Pavlov's dogs.jpg|thumb|One of the dogs used in Russian psychologist [[Ivan Pavlov]]'s experiment with a surgically implanted [[cannula]] to measure [[saliva]], [[taxidermy|preserved]] in the Pavlov Museum in [[Ryazan]], Russia]]
Philosopher [[John Stuart Mill]] believed that the human mind was open to scientific investigation, even if the science is in some ways inexact.<ref name="Henley">{{cite book |author=Henley TB |year=2019 |title=Hergenhahn's ''An introduction to the history of psychology'' |edition=8th |location=Boston |publisher=Cengage |pages=143–145 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0g9EDwAAQBAJ |access-date=2022-03-04 |isbn=978-1-337-56415-1 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730080359/https://books.google.com/books?id=0g9EDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Mill proposed a "mental [[chemistry]]" in which elementary thoughts could combine into ideas of greater complexity.<ref name="Henley"/> [[Gustav Fechner]] began conducting [[psychophysics]] research in [[Leipzig]] in the 1830s. He articulated the principle that human perception of a stimulus varies [[logarithmically]] according to its intensity.{{r|Leahey 2001|p=61|q=}} The principle became known as the [[Weber–Fechner law]]. Fechner's 1860 ''Elements of Psychophysics'' challenged Kant's negative view with regard to conducting quantitative research on the mind.<ref>Fechner, G. T. (1860). Elemente der Psychophysik. Breitkopf u. Härtel. (Elements of Psychophysics)</ref><ref name=Horst /> Fechner's achievement was to show that "mental processes could not only be given numerical magnitudes, but also that these could be measured by experimental methods."<ref name=Horst/> In Heidelberg, [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] conducted parallel research on sensory perception, and trained physiologist [[Wilhelm Wundt]]. Wundt, in turn, came to Leipzig University, where he established the psychological laboratory that brought experimental psychology to the world. Wundt focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components, motivated in part by an analogy to recent advances in chemistry, and its successful investigation of the elements and structure of materials.<ref name="WundtStanford">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2006). [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wilhelm-wundt/ "Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808003159/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wilhelm-wundt/ |date=8 August 2019 }}.</ref> [[Paul Flechsig]] and [[Emil Kraepelin]] soon created another influential laboratory at Leipzig, a psychology-related lab, that focused more on experimental psychiatry.<ref name=Horst />

[[James McKeen Cattell]], a professor of psychology at the [[University of Pennsylvania]] and [[Columbia University]] and the co-founder of ''[[Psychological Review]]'', was the first professor of psychology in the [[United States]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-10-22 |title=An Education in Psychology: James McKeen Cattell's Journal and Letters from Germany and England, 1880–1888 |url=https://www.archives.gov/nhprc/projects/catalog/james-mckeen-cattell#:~:text=Publishing%20Projects%20Catalog-,An%20Education%20in%20Psychology:%20James%20McKeen%20Cattell's%20Journal%20and%20Letters,Germany%20and%20England,%201880%E2%80%931888&text=James%20McKeen%20Cattell.,Courtesy%20Lafayette%20College%20Archives.&text=James%20McKeen%20Cattell%20(1860%20%E2%80%931944,of%20the%20late%2019th%20century. |access-date=2025-01-10 |website=National Archives |language=en}}</ref>

The German psychologist [[Hermann Ebbinghaus]], a researcher at the [[University of Berlin]], was a 19th-century contributor to the field. He pioneered the experimental study of memory and developed quantitative models of learning and forgetting.<ref>Wozniak, R.H. (1999). Introduction to memory: Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885/1913). [http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Ebbinghaus/wozniak.htm Classics in the history of psychology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606085744/http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Ebbinghaus/wozniak.htm |date=6 June 2019 }}</ref> In the early 20th century, [[Wolfgang Kohler]], [[Max Wertheimer]], and [[Kurt Koffka]] co-founded the school of [[Gestalt psychology]] of [[Fritz Perls]]. The approach of Gestalt psychology is based upon the idea that individuals experience things as unified wholes. Rather than [[Reductionism|reducing]] thoughts and behavior into smaller component elements, as in structuralism, the Gestaltists maintain that whole of experience is important, "and is something else than the sum of its parts, because summing is a meaningless procedure, whereas the whole-part relationship is meaningful."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Koffka |first=K. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.7888 |title=Principles of Gestalt Psychology |date=1935 |publisher=Harcourt, Brace |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.7888/page/n191 176] |access-date=13 October 2019}}</ref>

Psychologists in Germany, Denmark, Austria, England, and the United States soon followed Wundt in setting up laboratories.<ref name=BenjaminBaker /> [[G. Stanley Hall]], an American who studied with Wundt, founded a psychology lab that became internationally influential. The lab was located at [[Johns Hopkins University]]. Hall, in turn, trained [[Yūjirō Motora|Yujiro Motora]], who brought experimental psychology, emphasizing psychophysics, to the [[Imperial University of Tokyo]].<ref name=Takasuna>Miki Takasuna, "Japan", in Baker (ed.), ''Oxford Handbook of the History of Psychology'' (2012).</ref> Wundt's assistant, [[Hugo Münsterberg]], taught psychology at Harvard to students such as [[Narendra Nath Sen Gupta]]—who, in 1905, founded a psychology department and laboratory at the [[University of Calcutta]].<ref name=Paranjpe /> Wundt's students [[Walter Dill Scott]], [[Lightner Witmer]], and [[James McKeen Cattell]] worked on developing tests of mental ability. Cattell, who also studied with [[Eugenics|eugenicist]] [[Francis Galton]], went on to found the [[Psychological Corporation]]. Witmer focused on the mental testing of children; Scott, on employee selection.{{r|Leahey 2001|p=60|q=}}

Another student of Wundt, the Englishman [[Edward Titchener]], created the psychology program at [[Cornell University]] and advanced "[[Structuralism (psychology)|structuralist]]" psychology. The idea behind structuralism was to analyze and classify different aspects of the mind, primarily through the method of [[introspection]].<ref name=Goodwin /> William James, [[John Dewey]], and [[Harvey Carr]] advanced the idea of [[Functional psychology|functionalism]], an expansive approach to psychology that underlined the Darwinian idea of a behavior's usefulness to the individual. In 1890, James wrote an influential book, ''[[The Principles of Psychology]]'', which expanded on the structuralism. He memorably described "[[Stream of consciousness (psychology)|stream of consciousness]]." James's ideas interested many American students in the emerging discipline.{{r|n1=Goodwin|n2=James 1890|n3=Leahey 2001|pp3=178-82}} Dewey integrated psychology with societal concerns, most notably by promoting [[progressive education]], inculcating moral values in children, and assimilating immigrants.{{r|Leahey 2001|pp=196-200|q=}}

A different strain of experimentalism, with a greater connection to physiology, emerged in South America, under the leadership of Horacio G. Piñero at the [[University of Buenos Aires]].<ref>Cecilia Taiana, "Transatlantic Migration of the Disciplines of Mind: Examination of the Reception of Wundt's and Freud's Theories in Argentina", in Brock (ed.), ''Internationalizing the History of Psychology'' (2006).</ref> In Russia, too, researchers placed greater emphasis on the biological basis for psychology, beginning with [[Ivan Sechenov]]'s 1873 essay, "Who Is to Develop Psychology and How?" Sechenov advanced the idea of brain [[reflexes]] and aggressively promoted a [[determinism|deterministic]] view of human behavior.<ref name=SirotkinaSmith>Irina Sirotkina and Roger Smith, "Russian Federation", in Baker (ed.), ''Oxford Handbook of the History of Psychology'' (2012).</ref> The Russian-Soviet [[physiologist]] [[Ivan Pavlov]] discovered in dogs a learning process that was later termed "[[classical conditioning]]" and applied the process to human beings.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Windholz |first=G. |year=1997 |title=Ivan P. Pavlov: An overview of his life and psychological work |journal=American Psychologist |volume=52 |pages=941–946 |issue=9 |doi= 10.1037/0003-066X.52.9.941}}</ref>

=== Consolidation and funding ===
One of the earliest psychology societies was ''La Société de Psychologie Physiologique'' in France, which lasted from 1885 to 1893. The first meeting of the International Congress of Psychology sponsored by the [[International Union of Psychological Science]] took place in Paris, in August 1889, amidst [[Exposition Universelle (1889)|the World's Fair]] celebrating the centennial of the French Revolution. William James was one of three Americans among the 400 attendees. The [[American Psychological Association]] (APA) was founded soon after, in 1892. The International Congress continued to be held at different locations in Europe and with wide international participation. The Sixth Congress, held in Geneva in 1909, included presentations in Russian, Chinese, and Japanese, as well as [[Esperanto]]. After a hiatus for World War I, the Seventh Congress met in Oxford, with substantially greater participation from the war-victorious Anglo-Americans. In 1929, the Congress took place at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, attended by hundreds of members of the APA.<ref name=BenjaminBaker>Ludy T. Benjamin, Jr., and David B. Baker, "The Internationalization of Psychology: A History", in Baker (ed.), ''Oxford Handbook of the History of Psychology'' (2012).</ref> Tokyo Imperial University led the way in bringing new psychology to the East. New ideas about psychology diffused from Japan into China.<ref name=HsuehGuo /><ref name=Takasuna />

American psychology gained status upon the U.S.'s entry into World War I. A standing committee headed by [[Robert Yerkes]] administered mental tests ("[[Army Alpha]]" and "[[Army Beta]]") to almost 1.8 million soldiers.<ref name=Tomes2008 /> Subsequently, the [[Rockefeller family]], via the [[Social Science Research Council]], began to provide funding for behavioral research.<ref>Franz Samuelson, "Organizing for the Kingdom of Behavior: Academic Battles and the Organizational Policies in the Twenties"; ''Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences'' 21, January 1985.</ref><ref>Hans Pols, "The World as Laboratory: Strategies of Field Research Developed by Mental Hygiene Psychologists in Toronto, 1920–1940" in Theresa Richardson & Donald Fisher (eds.), ''The Development of the Social Sciences in the United States and Canada: The Role of Philanthropy''; Stamford, CT: Ablex Publishing, 1999; {{ISBN|1-56750-405-1}}</ref> Rockefeller charities funded the National Committee on Mental Hygiene, which disseminated the concept of mental illness and lobbied for applying ideas from psychology to child rearing.<ref name=Tomes2008 /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cohen |first=Sol |date=1983 |title=The Mental Hygiene Movement, the Development of Personality and the School: The Medicalization of American Education |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/368156?origin=crossref |journal=History of Education Quarterly |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=123 |doi=10.2307/368156}}</ref> Through the Bureau of Social Hygiene and later funding of [[Alfred Kinsey]], Rockefeller foundations helped establish research on sexuality in the U.S.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bullough |first=Vern L. |date=May 1985 |title=The Rockefellers and sex research |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00224498509551253 |journal=The Journal of Sex Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=113–125 |doi=10.1080/00224498509551253 |issn=0022-4499 |quote=Their importance is hard to overestimate. In fact, in the period between 1914 and 1954, the Rockefellers were almost the sole support of sex research in the United States. The decisions made by their scientific advisers about the nature of the research to be supported and how it was conducted, as well as the topics eligible for research support, shaped the whole field of sex research and, in many ways, still continue to support it.}}</ref> Under the influence of the Carnegie-funded [[Eugenics Record Office]], the Draper-funded [[Pioneer Fund]], and other institutions, the [[Eugenics in the United States|eugenics movement]] also influenced American psychology. In the 1910s and 1920s, eugenics became a standard topic in psychology classes.<ref name=GuthrieChapter4>Guthrie, ''Even the Rat was White'' (1998), Chapter 4: "Psychology and Race" (pp. 88–110). "Psychology courses often became the vehicles for eugenics propaganda. One graduate of the Record Office training program wrote, 'I hope to serve the cause by infiltrating eugenics into the minds of teachers. It may interest you to know that each student who takes psychology here works up his family history and plots his family tree.' Harvard, Columbia, Brown, Cornell, Wisconsin, and Northwestern were among the leading academic institutions teaching eugenics in psychology courses."</ref> In contrast to the US, in the UK psychology was met with antagonism by the scientific and medical establishments, and up until 1939, there were only six psychology chairs in universities in England.<ref>Michell, J, (1999) [https://books.google.com/books?id=oNIcvjpDQeQC&pg=PA143 ''Measurement in Psychology: A Critical History of a Methodological Concept''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209105919/https://books.google.it/books?id=oNIcvjpDQeQC&pg=PA143 |date=9 February 2021 }}, p.143</ref>

During World War II and the Cold War, the U.S. military and intelligence agencies established themselves as leading funders of psychology by way of the armed forces and in the new [[Office of Strategic Services]] intelligence agency. University of Michigan psychologist Dorwin Cartwright reported that university researchers began large-scale propaganda research in 1939–1941. He observed that "the last few months of the war saw a social psychologist become chiefly responsible for determining the week-by-week-propaganda policy for the United States Government." Cartwright also wrote that psychologists had significant roles in managing the domestic economy.<ref>Dorwin Cartwright, "Social Psychology in the United States During the Second World War", ''Human Relations'' 1.3, June 1948, p. 340; quoted in Cina, "Social Science For Whom?" (1981), p. 269.</ref> The Army rolled out its new [[Army General Classification Test|General Classification Test]] to assess the ability of millions of soldiers. The Army also engaged in large-scale psychological research of [[Samuel A. Stouffer#Studies in Social Psychology in World War II: The American Soldier|troop morale and mental health]].<ref name = "Schonfeld">Schonfeld, I.S., & Chang, C.-H. (2017). ''Occupational health psychology: Work, stress, and health''. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company.</ref> In the 1950s, the [[Rockefeller Foundation]] and [[Ford Foundation]] collaborated with the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) to fund research on [[psychological warfare]].<ref>Catherine Lutz, "[https://books.google.com/books?id=hwVWpV6jBzoC&pg=PA245 Epistemology of the Bunker: The Brainwashed and Other New Subjects of Permanent War] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919005126/https://books.google.com/books?id=hwVWpV6jBzoC&pg=PA245 |date=19 September 2015 }}", in Joel Pfister & Nancy Schnog (eds.), ''Inventing the Psychological: Toward a Cultural History of Emotional Life in America''; Yale University Press, 1997; {{ISBN|0-300-06809-3}}</ref> In 1965, public controversy called attention to the Army's [[Project Camelot]], the "Manhattan Project" of [[social science]], an effort which enlisted psychologists and anthropologists to analyze the plans and policies of foreign countries for strategic purposes.<ref>Cina, "Social Science For Whom?" (1981), pp. 315–325.</ref><ref>Herman, "Psychology as Politics" (1993), p. 288. "Had it come to fruition, CAMELOT would have been the largest, and certainly the most generously funded, behavioral research project in U.S. history. With a $4–6 million contract over a period of 3 years, it was considered, and often called, a veritable Manhattan Project for the behavioral sciences, at least by many of the intellectuals whose services were in heavy demand."</ref>

In Germany after World War I, psychology held institutional power through the military, which was subsequently expanded along with the rest of the military during [[Nazi Germany]].<ref name=Horst /> Under the direction of [[Hermann Göring]]'s cousin [[Matthias Göring]], the [[Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute]] was renamed the Göring Institute. [[Freudian psychoanalysis|Freudian psychoanalysts]] were expelled and persecuted under the anti-Jewish policies of the [[Nazi Party]], and all psychologists had to distance themselves from [[Sigmund Freud|Freud]] and [[Alfred Adler|Adler]], founders of [[psychoanalysis]] who were also Jewish.<ref>Cocks, ''Psychotherapy in the Third Reich'' (1997), pp. 75–77.</ref> The Göring Institute was well-financed throughout the war with a mandate to create a "New German Psychotherapy." This psychotherapy aimed to align suitable Germans with the overall goals of the Reich. As described by one physician, "Despite the importance of analysis, spiritual guidance and the active cooperation of the patient represent the best way to overcome individual mental problems and to subordinate them to the requirements of the ''[[Volk]]'' and the ''[[Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft|Gemeinschaft]]''." Psychologists were to provide ''Seelenführung'' [lit., soul guidance], the leadership of the mind, to integrate people into the new vision of a German community.<ref>Cocks, ''Psychotherapy in the Third Reich'' (1997), p. 93.</ref> [[Harald Schultz-Hencke]] melded psychology with the Nazi theory of biology and racial origins, criticizing psychoanalysis as a study of the weak and deformed.<ref>Cocks, ''Psychotherapy in the Third Reich'' (1997), pp. 86–87. "For Schultz-Hencke in this 1934 essay, life goals were determined by ideology, not by science. In the case of psychotherapy, he defined health in terms of blood, strong will, proficiency, discipline, (''Zucht und Ordnung''), community, heroic bearing, and physical fitness. Schultz-Hencke also took the opportunity in 1934 to criticize psychoanalysis for providing an unfortunate tendency toward the exculpation of the criminal."</ref> [[Johannes Heinrich Schultz]], a German psychologist recognized for developing the technique of [[autogenic training]], prominently advocated sterilization and euthanasia of men considered genetically undesirable, and devised techniques for facilitating this process.<ref>Jürgen Brunner, Matthias Schrempf, & Florian Steger, "[http://doctorsonly.co.il/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/2008_4_5.pdf Johannes Heinrich Schultz and National Socialism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912165633/http://www.doctorsonly.co.il/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/2008_4_5.pdf |date=12 September 2014 }}", ''Israel Journal of Psychiatry & Related Sciences'' 45.4, 2008. "Bringing these people to a right and deep understanding of every German's duty in the New Germany, such as preparatory mental aid and psychotherapy in general and in particular for persons to be sterilized, and for people having been sterilized, is a great, important and rewarding medical duty."</ref>

After the war, new institutions were created although some psychologists, because of their Nazi affiliation, were discredited. [[Alexander Mitscherlich (psychologist)|Alexander Mitscherlich]] founded a prominent applied psychoanalysis journal called ''Psyche''. With funding from the Rockefeller Foundation, Mitscherlich established the first clinical psychosomatic medicine division at Heidelberg University. In 1970, psychology was integrated into the required studies of medical students.<ref>Cocks, ''Psychotherapy in the Third Reich'' (1997), Chapter 14: "Reconstruction and Repression", pp. 351–375.</ref>

After the [[Russian Revolution]], the [[Bolsheviks]] promoted psychology as a way to engineer the "New Man" of socialism. Consequently, university psychology departments trained large numbers of students in psychology. At the completion of training, positions were made available for those students at schools, workplaces, cultural institutions, and in the military. The Russian state emphasized [[Pedology (children study)|pedology]] and the study of child development. [[Lev Vygotsky]] became prominent in the field of child development.<ref name=SirotkinaSmith /> The Bolsheviks also promoted [[free love]] and embraced the doctrine of psychoanalysis as an antidote to sexual repression.{{r|Kozulin 1984|pp=84-6|q=Against such a background it is not at all surprising that psychoanalysis, as a theory that ventured to approach the forbidden but topical theme of sexual relations, was embraced by the newborn Soviet psychology. Psychoanalysis also attracted the interest of Soviet psychology as a materialist trend that had challenged the credentials of classical introspective psychology. The reluctance of the pre-Revolutionary establishment to propagate psychoanalysis also played a positive role in the post-Revolutionary years; it was a field uncompromised by ties to old-regime science.}}<ref>cf. Hannah Proctor, "[http://thenewinquiry.com/essays/reason-displaces-all-love/ Reason Displaces All Love] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527205209/http://thenewinquiry.com/essays/reason-displaces-all-love/ |date=27 May 2015 }}", ''The New Inquiry'', 14 February 2014.</ref> Although pedology and intelligence testing fell out of favor in 1936, psychology maintained its privileged position as an instrument of the Soviet Union.<ref name=SirotkinaSmith /> [[Stalinist purges]] took a heavy toll and instilled a climate of fear in the profession, as elsewhere in Soviet society.{{r|Kozulin 1984|p=22|q=Stalin's purges of the 1930s did not spare Soviet psychologists. Leading Marxist philosophers earlier associated with psychology—including Yuri Frankfurt, Nikolai Karev, and Ivan Luppol—were executed in prison camps. The same fate awaited Alexei Gastev and Isaak Shipilrein. Those who survived lived in an atmosphere of total suspicion. ... People who dominated their fields yesterday might be denounced today as traitors and enemies of the people, and by tomorrow their names might disappear from all public records. Books and newspapers were constantly being recalled from libraries to rid them of 'obsolete' names and references.}} Following World War II, Jewish psychologists past and present, including [[Lev Vygotsky]], [[Alexander Luria|A.R. Luria]], and Aron Zalkind, were denounced; Ivan Pavlov (posthumously) and Stalin himself were celebrated as heroes of Soviet psychology.{{r|Kozulin 1984|pp=25-6, 48-9|q=}} Soviet academics experienced a degree of liberalization during the [[Khrushchev Thaw]]. The topics of cybernetics, linguistics, and genetics became acceptable again. The new field of [[engineering psychology]] emerged. The field involved the study of the mental aspects of complex jobs (such as pilot and cosmonaut). Interdisciplinary studies became popular and scholars such as [[Georgy Shchedrovitsky]] developed systems theory approaches to human behavior.{{r|Kozulin 1984|pp=27-33|q=Georgy Schedrovitsky, who is currently at the Moscow Institute of Psychology, can be singled out as the most prominent theorist working in the context of systems research. ... This is Schedrovitsky's second major thesis: Activity should not be regarded as an attribute of the individual but rather as an all-embracing system that 'captures' individuals and 'forces' them to behave a certain way. This approach may be traced back to the assertion of Wilhelm Humboldt that it is not man who has language as an attribute, but rather language that 'possesses' man. ... Schedrovitsky's activity approach has been applied successfully to the design of man-machine systems and to the evaluation of human factors in urban planning.}}

Twentieth-century Chinese psychology originally modeled itself on U.S. psychology, with translations from American authors like William James, the establishment of university psychology departments and journals, and the establishment of groups including the Chinese Association of Psychological Testing (1930) and the [[Chinese Psychological Society]] (1937). Chinese psychologists were encouraged to focus on education and language learning. Chinese psychologists were drawn to the idea that education would enable modernization. John Dewey, who lectured to Chinese audiences between 1919 and 1921, had a significant influence on psychology in China. Chancellor [[Cai Yuanpei|T'sai Yuan-p'ei]] introduced him at [[Peking University]] as a greater thinker than Confucius. [[Zing-Yang Kuo|Kuo Zing-yang]] who received a PhD at the University of California, Berkeley, became President of [[Zhejiang University]] and popularized [[behaviorism]].{{r|Chin 1969|pp=5-9|q=}} After the [[Chinese Communist Party]] gained control of the country, the Stalinist Soviet Union became the major influence, with [[Marxism–Leninism]] the leading social doctrine and Pavlovian conditioning the approved means of behavior change. Chinese psychologists elaborated on Lenin's model of a "reflective" consciousness, envisioning an "active consciousness" ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|p=tzu-chueh neng-tung-li}}) able to transcend material conditions through hard work and ideological struggle. They developed a concept of "recognition" ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|p=jen-shih}}) which referred to the interface between individual perceptions and the socially accepted worldview; failure to correspond with party doctrine was "incorrect recognition."{{r|Chin 1969|pp=9-17|q=The Soviet psychology that Peking modeled itself upon was Marxist-Leninist psychology with a philosophical base in dialectical materialism and a newly added label, Pavlovianism. This new Soviet psychology leaned heavily on Lenin's theory of reflection, which was unearthed in his two volumes posthumously published in 1924. Toward the late twenties, a group of Soviet research psychologists headed by Vygotskii, along with Luria and Leont'ev, laid the groundwork for a Marxist-Leninist approach to psychic development.}} Psychology education was centralized under the [[Chinese Academy of Sciences]], supervised by the [[State Council of the People's Republic of China|State Council]]. In 1951, the academy created a Psychology Research Office, which in 1956 became the Institute of Psychology. Because most leading psychologists were educated in the United States, the first concern of the academy was the re-education of these psychologists in the Soviet doctrines. Child psychology and pedagogy for the purpose of a nationally cohesive education remained a central goal of the discipline.{{r|Chin 1969|pp=18-24|q=}}

=== Women in psychology ===

==== 1900–1949 ====
Women in the early 1900s started to make key findings within the world of psychology. In 1923, [[Anna Freud]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-24 |title=Anna Freud: Theory & Contributions To Psychology |url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/anna-freud.html |access-date=2024-03-04 |language=en-US}}</ref> the daughter of [[Sigmund Freud]], built on her father's work using different [[Defence mechanism|defense mechanisms]] (denial, repression, and suppression) to [[Psychoanalysis|psychoanalyze]] children. She believed that once a child reached the [[Latency stage|latency period]], [[Child psychoanalysis|child analysis]] could be used as a mode of [[therapy]]. She stated it is important focus on the child's environment, support their development, and prevent [[neurosis]]. She believed a child should be recognized as their own person with their own right and have each session catered to the child's specific needs. She encouraged drawing, moving freely, and expressing themselves in any way. This helped build a strong therapeutic alliance with child patients, which allows psychologists to observe their normal behavior. She continued her research on the impact of children after family separation, children with socio-economically disadvantaged backgrounds, and all stages of child development from infancy to adolescence.<ref>[[Erik Erikson|Erikson, Erik H.]] (1973) ''[[Childhood and Society]]''. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, p. 298</ref>

[[Functional periodicity]], the belief women are mentally and physically impaired during [[menstruation]], impacted [[women's rights]] because employers were less likely to hire them due to the belief they would be incapable of working for 1 week a month. [[Leta Stetter Hollingworth]] wanted to prove this hypothesis and [[Edward Thorndike|Edward L. Thorndike's]] theory, that women have lesser psychological and physical traits than men and were simply mediocre, incorrect. [[Leta Stetter Hollingworth|Hollingworth]] worked to prove differences were not from male genetic superiority, but from culture. She also included the concept of women's impairment during [[menstruation]] in her research. She recorded both women and men performances on tasks (cognitive, perceptual, and motor) for three months. No evidence was found of decreased performance due to a woman's [[Menstrual cycle|menstrual]] cycle.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Classics in the History of Psychology -- Hollingworth (1914) Index |url=https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Hollingworth/Periodicity/ |access-date=2024-03-06 |website=psychclassics.yorku.ca}}</ref> She also challenged the belief intelligence is inherited and women here are intellectually inferior to men. She stated that women do not reach positions of power due to the [[Social norm|societal norms]] and roles they are assigned. As she states in her article, "Variability as related to sex differences in achievement: A Critique",<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hollingworth |first=Leta Stetter |date=1914 |title=Variability as Related to Sex Differences in Achievement: A Critique |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2762962 |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=510–530 |doi=10.1086/212287 |jstor=2762962 |s2cid=144414476 |issn=0002-9602}}</ref> the largest problem women have is the social order that was built due to the assumption women have less interests and abilities than men. To further prove her point, she completed another experiment with infants who have not been influenced by the environment of social norms, like the adult male getting more opportunities than women. She found no difference between infants besides size. After this research proved the original hypothesis wrong, [[Leta Stetter Hollingworth|Hollingworth]] was able to show there is no difference between the physiological and psychological traits of men and women, and women are not impaired during [[menstruation]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Weinberger |first=Jessica |date=2020-03-02 |title=The Incredible Influence of Women in Psychology |url=https://www.talkspace.com/blog/important-women-in-history-psychology-therapy/ |access-date=2024-03-04 |website=Talkspace |language=en-US}}</ref>

The first half of the 1900s was filled with new theories and it was a turning point for women's recognition within the field of psychology. In addition to the contributions made by [[Leta Stetter Hollingworth]] and [[Anna Freud]], [[Mary Whiton Calkins]] invented the paired associates technique of studying memory and developed [[Self psychology|self-psychology]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.apa.org/about/governance/president/bio-mary-whiton-calkins |access-date=2024-03-06 |website=www.apa.org|title=Mary Whiton Calkins: 1905 APA President}}</ref> [[Karen Horney]] developed the concept of "[[womb envy]]" and neurotic needs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Karen Horney {{!}} German Psychoanalyst & Feminist Psychologist {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Karen-Horney |access-date=2024-03-06 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Psychoanalyst [[Melanie Klein]] impacted [[developmental psychology]] with her research of [[play therapy]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Melanie Klein {{!}} Institute of Psychoanalysis |url=https://psychoanalysis.org.uk/our-authors-and-theorists/melanie-klein |access-date=2024-03-06 |website=psychoanalysis.org.uk}}</ref> These great discoveries and contributions were made during struggles of [[sexism]], [[discrimination]], and little recognition for their work.

==== 1950–1999 ====
Women in the second half of the 20th century continued to do research that had large-scale impacts on the field of psychology. [[Mary Ainsworth]]'s work centered around [[attachment theory]]. Building off fellow psychologist [[John Bowlby]], Ainsworth spent years doing [[Field research|fieldwork]] to understand the development of mother-infant relationships. In doing this field research, Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation Procedure, a laboratory procedure meant to study attachment style by separating and uniting a child with their mother several different times under different circumstances. These field studies are also where she developed her [[attachment theory]] and the order of [[attachment styles]], which was a landmark for [[developmental psychology]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-03-23 |title=Ainsworth, Mary D. Salter - Psychologists and Their Theories for Students {{!}} HighBeam Research |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3456300011.html |access-date=2024-03-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150323101023/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3456300011.html |archive-date=23 March 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Ravo |first=Nick |date=1999-04-07 |title=Mary Ainsworth, 85, Theorist On Mother-Infant Attachment |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/04/07/us/mary-ainsworth-85-theorist-on-mother-infant-attachment.html |access-date=2024-03-06 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Because of her work, Ainsworth became one of the most cited psychologists of all time.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Haggbloom |first1=Steven J. |last2=Warnick |first2=Renee |last3=Warnick |first3=Jason E. |last4=Jones |first4=Vinessa K. |last5=Yarbrough |first5=Gary L. |last6=Russell |first6=Tenea M. |last7=Borecky |first7=Chris M. |last8=McGahhey |first8=Reagan |last9=Powell |first9=John L. |last10=Beavers |first10=Jamie |last11=Monte |first11=Emmanuelle |date=June 2002 |title=The 100 Most Eminent Psychologists of the 20th Century |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139 |journal=Review of General Psychology |language=en |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=139–152 |doi=10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139 |s2cid=145668721 |issn=1089-2680}}</ref> [[Mamie Phipps Clark]] was another woman in psychology that changed the field with her research. She was one of the first African-Americans to receive a doctoral degree in psychology from [[Columbia University]], along with her husband, [[Kenneth and Mamie Clark|Kenneth Clark]]. Her master's thesis, "The Development of Consciousness in Negro Pre-School Children," argued that black children's [[self-esteem]] was negatively impacted by [[racial discrimination]]. She and her husband conduced research building off her thesis throughout the 1940s. These tests, called the [[Doll Test|doll tests]], asked young children to choose between identical dolls whose only difference was race, and they found that the majority of the children preferred the white dolls and attributed positive traits to them. Repeated over and over again, these tests helped to determine the negative effects of [[racial discrimination]] and [[Racial segregation|segregation]] on black children's [[self-image]] and development. In 1954, this research would help decide the landmark [[Brown v. Board of Education]] decision, leading to the end of legal segregation across the nation. Clark went on to be an influential figure in psychology, her work continuing to focus on minority youth.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Featured Psychologists: Mamie Phipps Clark, PhD, and Kenneth Clark, PhD |url=https://www.apa.org/pi/oema/resources/ethnicity-health/psychologists/clark |access-date=2024-03-06 |website=www.apa.org}}</ref>

As the field of psychology developed throughout the latter half of the 20th century, women in the field advocated for their voices to be heard and their perspectives to be valued. [[Second-wave feminism]] did not miss psychology. An outspoken feminist in psychology was [[Naomi Weisstein]], who was an accomplished researcher in psychology and [[neuroscience]], and is perhaps best known for her paper, "Kirche, Kuche, Kinder as Scientific Law: Psychology Constructs the Female." Psychology Constructs the Female criticized the field of psychology for centering men and using biology too much to explain gender differences without taking into account social factors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Weisstein |first=Naomi |date=June 1993 |title=Psychology Constructs the Female; or the Fantasy Life of the Male Psychologist (with Some Attention to the Fantasies of his Friends, the Male Biologist and the Male Anthropologist) |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0959353593032005 |journal=Feminism & Psychology |language=en |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=194–210 |doi=10.1177/0959353593032005 |s2cid=142246296 |issn=0959-3535}}</ref> Her work set the stage for further research to be done in [[social psychology]], especially in [[Gender Construction|gender construction]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ball |first1=Laura C. |last2=Rutherford |first2=Alexandra |date=2016 |title=Naomi Weisstein (1939–2015). |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0039886 |journal=American Psychologist |language=en |volume=71 |issue=1 |pages=77 |doi=10.1037/a0039886 |pmid=26766770 |issn=1935-990X}}</ref> Other women in the field also continued advocating for women in psychology, creating the [[Association for Women in Psychology]] to criticize how the field treated women. [[E. Kitch Childs|E. Kitsch Child]], [[Phyllis Chesler]], and [[Dorothy Riddle]] were some of the founding members of the organization in 1969.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Content |first=Contributed |date=1993-02-14 |title=E. KITCH CHILDS |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/1993/02/14/e-kitch-childs/ |access-date=2024-03-06 |website=Chicago Tribune |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Times |first=Robert Reinhold Special to The New York |date=1970-09-06 |title=WOMEN CRITICIZE PSYCHOLOGY UNIT |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1970/09/06/archives/women-criticize-psychology-unit-1million-in-reparations-is-demanded.html |access-date=2024-03-06 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

The latter half of the 20th century further diversified the field of psychology, with women of color reaching new milestones. In 1962, [[Martha E. Bernal|Martha Bernal]] became the first Latina woman to get a Ph.D. in psychology. In 1969, [[Marigold Linton]], the first Native American woman to get a Ph.D. in psychology, founded the [[National Indian Education Association]]. She was also a founding member of the [[Society for Advancement of Chicanos and Native Americans in Science]]. In 1971, The Network of Indian Psychologists was established by [[Carolyn Attneave]]. Harriet McAdoo was appointed to the White House Conference on Families in 1979.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Women in Psychology Timeline |url=https://www.apa.org/pi/women/iampsyched/timeline |access-date=2024-03-06 |website=www.apa.org}}</ref>

==== 21st century ====

In the 21st century, women have gained greater prominence in psychology, contributing significantly to a wide range of subfields. Many have taken on leadership roles, directed influential research labs, and guided the next generation of psychologists. However, gender disparities remain, especially when it comes to equal pay and representation in senior academic positions.<ref name=gruber>{{cite journal | last=Gruber | first=June | title=The Future of Women in Psychological Science | journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science | publisher=SAGE Publications | volume=16 | issue=3 | date=2020-09-09 | issn=1745-6916 | doi=10.1177/1745691620952789 | doi-access=free | pages=483–516 | pmid=32901575 | pmc=8114333 | hdl=1959.4/unsworks_77629 | hdl-access=free }}</ref> The number of women pursuing education and training in psychological science has reached a record high. In the United States, estimates suggest that women make up about 78% of undergraduate students and 71% of graduate students in psychology.<ref name=gruber/>