Editing Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories (section)

=== Human genetics ===
Between 2007 and 2009, geneticist [[Erik Thorsby]] and colleagues published two studies in ''[[Tissue Antigens]]'' that offer evidence of an Amerindian genetic contribution to human populations on [[Easter Island]], determining that it was probably introduced before European discovery of the island.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1399-0039.2006.00717.x |title= Molecular genetic studies of natives on Easter Island: evidence of an early European and Amerindian contribution to the Polynesian gene pool | year = 2007 | last1 = Lie | first1 = B. A. | last2 = Dupuy | first2 = B. M. | last3 = Spurkland | first3 = A.|authorlink3=Anne Spurkland | last4 = Fernández-Viña | first4 = M. A. | last5 = Hagelberg | first5 = E. |author-link5=Erika Hagelberg | last6 = Thorsby | first6 = E. | journal = Tissue Antigens | volume = 69 |issue= 1 | pages = 10–18 | pmid=17212703}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1399-0039.2009.01233.x | title= Further evidence of an Amerindian contribution to the Polynesian gene pool on Easter Island | year = 2009 | last1 = Thorsby | first1 = E. | last2 = Flåm | first2 = S. T. | last3 = Woldseth | first3 = B. | last4 = Dupuy | first4 = B. M. | last5 = Sanchez-Mazas | first5 = A. | last6 = Fernandez-Vina | first6 = M. A. | journal = Tissue Antigens | volume = 73 | issue = 6 | pages = 582–5 | pmid = 19493235 }}</ref> In 2014, geneticist Anna-Sapfo Malaspinas of the Center for GeoGenetics at the [[University of Copenhagen]] published a study in ''[[Current Biology]]'' that found human genetic evidence of contact between the populations of Easter Island and [[South America]], dating to approximately 600 years ago (i.e. 1400 CE ± 100 years).<ref>{{cite web|last1=Westerholm|first1=Russell|title=Easter Island Was Not Populated Solely by the Polynesians, According to New Genetic Study|url=http://www.universityherald.com/articles/12415/20141024/easter-island-was-not-populated-solely-by-the-polynesians-according-to-new-genetic-study.htm|website=University Herald|access-date=December 24, 2014|date=October 24, 2014}}</ref> In 2017, a comprehensive genomes study found "no Native American admixture in pre- and post-European-contact individuals".<ref name="Fehren-Schmitz Jarman Harkins Kayser 2017 pp. 3209–3215.e6">{{cite journal | last1=Fehren-Schmitz | first1=Lars | last2=Jarman | first2=Catrine L. | last3=Harkins | first3=Kelly M. | last4=Kayser | first4=Manfred | last5=Popp | first5=Brian N. | last6=Skoglund | first6=Pontus | title=Genetic Ancestry of Rapanui before and after European Contact | journal=Current Biology | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=27 | issue=20 | year=2017 | issn=0960-9822 | doi=10.1016/j.cub.2017.09.029 | pages=3209–3215.e6| pmid=29033334 | s2cid=21693208 | doi-access=free | bibcode=2017CBio...27E3209F }}</ref>

Two skulls suggested to belong to "Botocudo" people (a term used to refer to Native Americans who live in the interior of [[Brazil]] that speak [[Macro-Jê languages]]), were found in research published in 2013 to have been members of [[mtDNA haplogroup]] [[Haplogroup B (mtDNA)#Tree|B4a1a1]], which is normally found only among Polynesians and other subgroups of [[Austronesian people|Austronesians]]. This was based on an analysis of 14 skulls. Two belonged to B4a1a1, while twelve belonged to subclades of mtDNA [[haplogroup C (mtDNA)|haplogroup C1]] (common among Native Americans). The research team examined various scenarios, none of which they could say for certain were correct. They dismissed a scenario of direct contact in prehistory between [[Polynesia]] and Brazil as "too unlikely to be seriously entertained." While B4a1a1 is also found among the [[Malagasy people]] of [[Madagascar]] (which experienced significant Austronesian settlement in prehistory), the authors described as "fanciful" suggestions that B4a1a1 among the Botocudo resulted from the African slave trade (which included Madagascar).<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Vanessa Faria Gonçalves |author2=Jesper Stenderup |author3=Cláudia Rodrigues-Carvalho |author4=Hilton P. Silva |author5=Higgor Gonçalves-Dornelas |author6=Andersen Líryo |author7=Toomas Kivisild |author8=Anna-Sapfo Malaspinas |author9=Paula F. Campos |author10=Morten Rasmussen |author11=Eske Willerslev |author12=Sergio Danilo J. Pena |title=Identification of Polynesian mtDNA haplogroups in remains of Botocudo Amerindians from Brazil|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=110|issue=16|pages=6465–6469|doi=10.1073/pnas.1217905110|year=2013 |pmid=23576724 |pmc=3631640|bibcode=2013PNAS..110.6465G |doi-access=free }}</ref> A later review paper of Polynesian history suggested that it was "more likely that these are the skulls of two people who died in Polynesia sometime early in the period of European voyaging, and whose graves were robbed by later visitors, and then mistakenly grouped in collections with the remains of Native Americans."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Horsburgh |first1=K. Ann |last2=McCoy |first2=Mark D. |date=September 2017 |title=Dispersal, Isolation, and Interaction in the Islands of Polynesia: A Critical Review of Archaeological and Genetic Evidence |journal=Diversity |language=en |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=37 |doi=10.3390/d9030037 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2017Diver...9...37H |issn=1424-2818}}</ref>

In 2020, a study in ''Nature'' found that populations in the [[Mangareva]], [[Marquesas Islands|Marquesas]], and [[Palliser Islands|Palliser]] islands and Easter Island had [[genetic admixture]] from indigenous populations of South America, with the DNA of contemporary populations of [[Zenú|Zenú people]] from the Pacific coast of [[Colombia]] being the closest match. The authors suggest that the genetic signatures were probably the result of a single ancient contact. They proposed that an initial admixture event between indigenous South Americans and Polynesians occurred in eastern Polynesia between 1150 and 1230 CE, with later admixture in Easter Island around 1380 CE,<ref name=":0" /> but suggested other possible contact scenarios—for example, Polynesian voyages to South America followed by Polynesian people's returning to Polynesia with South American people, or carrying South American genetic heritage.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Nature|last=Wallin|first=Paul|title=Native South Americans were early inhabitants of Polynesia|date=2020-07-08|volume=583|issue=7817|pages=524–525|doi=10.1038/d41586-020-01983-5|pmid=32641787|bibcode=2020Natur.583..524W|s2cid=220436442|doi-access=free}}</ref> Several scholars uninvolved in the study suggested that a contact event in South America was more likely.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gannon|first=Megan|date=2020-07-08|title=DNA reveals Native American presence in Polynesia centuries before Europeans arrived|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/2020/07/dna-pre-columbian-contact-polynesians-native-americans/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200709021542/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/2020/07/dna-pre-columbian-contact-polynesians-native-americans/|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 9, 2020|access-date=2020-07-09|website=National Geographic|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Wade|first=Lizzie|date=2020-07-08|title=Polynesians steering by the stars met Native Americans long before Europeans arrived|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/polynesians-steering-stars-met-native-americans-long-europeans-arrived|access-date=2020-07-09|website=Science {{!}} AAAS|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Zimmer|first=Carl|date=2020-07-08|title=Some Polynesians Carry DNA of Ancient Native Americans, New Study Finds|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/08/science/polynesian-ancestry.html|access-date=2020-07-09|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Further genetic analysis on Easter Island indigenous population showed about 10% of the genome to be of Native American origin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Moreno-Mayar |first1=J. Víctor |last2=Sousa da Mota |first2=Bárbara |last3=Higham |first3=Tom |last4=Klemm |first4=Signe |last5=Gorman Edmunds |first5=Moana |last6=Stenderup |first6=Jesper |last7=Iraeta-Orbegozo |first7=Miren |last8=Laborde |first8=Véronique |last9=Heyer |first9=Evelyne |last10=Torres Hochstetter |first10=Francisco |last11=Friess |first11=Martin |last12=Allentoft |first12=Morten E. |last13=Schroeder |first13=Hannes |last14=Delaneau |first14=Olivier |last15=Malaspinas |first15=Anna-Sapfo |date=September 11, 2024 |title=Ancient Rapanui genomes reveal resilience and pre-European contact with the Americas |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=633 |issue=8029 |pages=389–397 |doi=10.1038/s41586-024-07881-4 |pmid=39261618 |pmc=11390480 |bibcode=2024Natur.633..389M |issn=1476-4687}}</ref>