Editing Pre-Columbian era (section)

==Genetics==
[[File:Map of gene flow in and out of Beringia.jpg|thumb|Schematic illustration of maternal (mtDNA) gene-flow in and out of [[Beringia]], from 25,000 years ago to present|alt=Schematic illustration of maternal geneflow in and out of Beringia.Colours of the arrows correspond to approximate timing of the events and are decoded in the coloured time-bar. The initial peopling of Berinigia (depicted in light yellow) was followed by a standstill after which the ancestors of indigenous Americans spread swiftly all over the New World while some of the Beringian maternal lineages–C1a-spread westwards. More recent (shown in green) genetic exchange is manifested by back-migration of A2a into Siberia and the spread of D2a into north-eastern America that post-dated the initial peopling of the New World.]]
{{Main|Genetic history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas}}
The [[haplogroup]] most commonly associated with [[Indigenous Amerindian genetics]] is [[Haplogroup Q1a3a (Y-DNA)|Y-chromosome haplogroup Q1a3a]].<ref name=demographic>{{cite journal |first1=Maria-Catira |last1=Bortolini |first2=Francisco M. |last2=Salzano |first3=Mark G. |last3=Thomas |first4=Steven |last4=Stuart |first5=Selja P. K. |last5=Nasanen |first6=Claiton H. D. |last6=Bau |first7=Mara H. |last7=Hutz |first8=Zulay |last8=Layrisse |first9=Maria L. |last9=Petzl-Erler |first10=Luiza T. |last10=Tsuneto |first11=Kim |last11=Hill |first12=Ana M. |last12=Hurtado |first13=Dinorah |last13=Castro-de-Guerra |first14=Maria M. |last14=Torres |first15=Helena |last15=Groot |first16=Roman |last16=Michalski |first17=Pagbajabyn |last17=Nymadawa |first18=Gabriel |last18=Bedoya |first19=Neil |last19=Bradman |first20=Damian |last20=Labuda |first21=Andres |last21=Ruiz-Linares |display-authors=3 |title=Y-Chromosome Evidence for Differing Ancient Demographic Histories in the Americas |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |date=September 2003 |volume=73 |issue=3 |pages=524–539 |doi=10.1086/377588 |pmid=12900798 |pmc=1180678 }}</ref> Researchers have found genetic evidence that the Q1a3a haplogroup has been in South America since at least 18,000 BCE.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sepúlveda |first=Paz |display-authors=etal |date=2022 |title=Human Y chromosome sequences from Q Haplogroup reveal a South American settlement pre-18,000 years ago and a profound genomic impact during the Younger Dryas. |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=17 |issue=8 |pages=e0271971 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0271971 |pmid=35976870 |pmc=9385064 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022PLoSO..1771971P }}</ref> [[Y-chromosome DNA]], like [[Mitochondrial DNA|mtDNA]], differs from other nuclear [[chromosome]]s in that the majority of the Y-chromosome is unique and does not recombine during [[meiosis]]. This has the effect that the historical pattern of [[mutations]] can easily be studied.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Orgel |first=Leslie E. |title=Prebiotic chemistry and the origin of the RNA world |url=http://www.d.umn.edu/~pschoff/documents/OrgelRNAWorld.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.d.umn.edu/~pschoff/documents/OrgelRNAWorld.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |journal=[[Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology]] |year=2004 |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=99–123 |pmid=15217990 |doi=10.1080/10409230490460765|citeseerx=10.1.1.537.7679 |s2cid=4939632 }}</ref> The pattern indicates [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas]] experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes: first with the initial [[peopling of the Americas]] and second with [[European colonization of the Americas]].<ref name=SpencerWells3>{{cite book |first1=Spencer |last1=Wells |title=The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WAsKm-_zu5sC&pg=PP1 |publisher=Random House |isbn= 978-0-8129-7146-0 |year=2002}}</ref><ref name=Genebase>{{cite web |title=Learn about Y-DNA Haplogroup Q-M242 |first=Wendy |last=Tymchuk |url=http://www.genebase.com/tutorial/item.php?tuId=16 |publisher=Genebase Systems |year=2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100622001311/http://www.genebase.com/tutorial/item.php?tuId=16 |archive-date=22 June 2010 |quote=Haplogroups are defined by unique mutation events such as single nucleotide polymorphisms, or SNPs. These SNPs mark the branch of a haplogroup, and indicate that all descendants of that haplogroup at one time shared a common ancestor. The Y-DNA SNP mutations were passed from father to son over thousands of years. Over time, additional SNPs occur within a haplogroup, leading to new lineages. These new lineages are considered subclades of the haplogroup. Each time a new mutation occurs, there is a new branch in the haplogroup, and therefore a new subclade. Haplogroup Q, possibly the youngest of the 20 Y-chromosome haplogroups, originated with the SNP mutation M242 in a man from Haplogroup P that likely lived in Siberia approximately 15,000 to 20,000 years before present}}</ref> The former is the determinant factor for the number of [[gene]] lineages and founding haplotypes present in today's [[Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous populations]].<ref name=Genebase/>

Human settlement of the Americas occurred in stages from the [[Bering Sea|Bering Sea coastline]], with an initial 20,000-year layover on [[Beringia]] for the [[Founder effect|founding population]].<ref name=First>{{cite news |title = First Americans Endured 20,000-Year Layover |first=Jennifer |last=Viegas |work=Discovery News |url=http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/02/13/beringia-native-american.html |quote=Archaeological evidence, in fact, recognizes that people started to leave Beringia for the New World around 40,000 years ago, but rapid expansion into North America didn't occur until about 15,000 years ago, when the ice had literally broken |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313061401/http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/02/13/beringia-native-american-02.html |archive-date=13 March 2012}}</ref><ref name=first2>{{cite news |title=New World Settlers Took 20,000-Year Pit Stop |first=Ker |last=Than |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/02/080214-america-layover.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219013512/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/02/080214-america-layover.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 February 2008 |publisher=National Geographic Society |year=2008 |quote=Over time descendants developed a unique culture—one that was different from the original migrants' way of life in Asia but which contained seeds of the new cultures that would eventually appear throughout the Americas}}</ref> The [[Microsatellite (genetics)|microsatellite]] diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America indicate that certain Amerindian populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region.<ref name=subclades>{{cite web |title=Summary of knowledge on the subclades of Haplogroup Q |url=http://64.40.115.138/file/lu/6/52235/NTIyMzV9K3szNTc2Nzc=.jpg?download=1 |publisher=Genebase Systems |year=2009 |access-date=22 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510204204/http://64.40.115.138/file/lu/6/52235/NTIyMzV9K3szNTc2Nzc%3D.jpg?download=1 |archive-date=10 May 2011}}</ref> The [[Na-Dené]], [[Inuit]], and [[Alaska Natives|Indigenous Alaskan]] populations exhibit [[haplogroup Q-M242 (Y-DNA)]] mutations, however, and are distinct from other Indigenous peoples with various mtDNA mutations.<ref name=NaDene>{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.23.13994 |last=Ruhlen |first=M. |title=The origin of the Na-Dene |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=95 |issue=23 |pages=13994–13996 |date=November 1998 |pmid=9811914 |pmc=25007 |bibcode=1998PNAS...9513994R |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Zhivotovsky>{{cite journal |last1=Zegura |first1=Stephen L. |last2=Karafet |first2=Tatiana M. |last3=Zhivotovsky |first3=Lev A. |last4=Hammer |first4=Michael F. |title=High-resolution SNPs and microsatellite haplotypes point to a single, recent entry of Native American Y chromosomes into the Americas |journal=[[Molecular Biology and Evolution]] |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=164–175 |date=January 2004 |pmid=14595095 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msh009|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=inuit>{{cite journal |title=mtDNA Variation among Greenland Eskimos: The Edge of the Beringian Expansion |url= |first1=Juliette |last1=Saillard |first2=Peter |last2=Forster |first3=Niels |last3=Lynnerup |first4=Hans-Jürgen |last4=Bandelt |first5=Søren |last5=Nørby |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |date=September 2000 |volume=67 |issue=3 |pages=718–726 |pmid=10924403 |pmc=1287530 |doi=10.1086/303038 |quote=The relatively lower coalescence time of the entire haplogroup A2 including the shared sub-arctic branches A2b (Siberians and Inuit) and A2a (Eskimos and Na-Dené) is probably due to secondary expansions of haplogroup A2 from the Beringia area, which would have averaged the overall internal variation of haplogroup A2 in North America.}}</ref> This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later populations.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Antonio |last1=Torroni |first2=Theodore G. |last2=Schurr |first3=Chi-Chuan |last3=Yang |first4=Emoke J. E. |last4=Szathmary |first5=Robert C. |last5=Williams |first6=Moses S. |last6=Schanfield |first7=Gary A. |last7=Troup |first8=William C. |last8=Knowler |first9=Dale N. |last9=Lawrence |first10=Kenneth M. |last10=Weisss |first11=Douglas C. |last11=Wallace |display-authors=3 |title=Native American Mitochondrial DNA Analysis Indicates That the Amerind and the Nadene Populations Were Founded by Two Independent Migrations |journal=[[Genetics (journal)|Genetics]] |date=January 1992 |volume=130 |issue=1 |pages=153–162 |doi=10.1093/genetics/130.1.153 |pmid=1346260 |pmc=1204788 |quote=The divergence time for the Nadene portion of the HaeIII np 663 lineage was about 6,000–10,000 years. Hence, the ancestral Nadene migrated from Asia independently and considerably more recently than the progenitors of the Amerinds.}}</ref>