Editing Power (social and political) (section)

=== Five bases of power ===
{{Main|French and Raven's five bases of power}}

In a now-classic study (1959),<ref>French, J.R.P., & Raven, B. (1959). 'The bases of social power,' in D. Cartwright (ed.) Studies in Social Power. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. 259–269.</ref> social psychologists [[John R. P. French]] and [[Bertram Raven]] developed a schema of sources of power by which to analyse how power plays work (or fail to work) in a specific relationship.

According to French and Raven, power must be distinguished from influence in the following way: power is that state of affairs that holds in a given relationship, A-B, such that a given influence attempt by A over B makes A's desired change in B more likely. Conceived this way, power is fundamentally ''relative;'' it depends on the specific understandings A and B each apply to their relationship and requires B's recognition of a quality in A that would motivate B to change in the way A intends. A must draw on the 'base' or combination of bases of power appropriate to the relationship to effect the desired outcome. Drawing on the wrong power base can have unintended effects, including a reduction in A's own power.

French and Raven argue that there are five significant categories of such qualities, while not excluding other minor categories. Further bases have since been adduced, in particular by [[Gareth Morgan (business theorist)|Gareth Morgan]] in his 1986 book, ''[[Images of Organization]]''.<ref>{{Citation|url=http://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1873&context=utk_graddiss|title=Everyday Experiences of Power|date=August 2010|first=Kelly E.|last=de Moll|page=22|format=PDF|publisher=University of Tennessee|location=Knoxville, TN|type=Ph.D. dissertation|postscript=.|access-date=16 May 2014|archive-date=22 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211022074157/https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1873&context=utk_graddiss|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Legitimate power ====
{{Main|Legitimate power}}
Also called "positional power", legitimate power is the power of an individual because of the relative position and duties of the holder of the position within an organization. Legitimate power is formal authority delegated to the holder of the position. It is usually accompanied by various attributes of power, such as a [[uniform]], a title, or an imposing physical office.

In simple terms, power can be expressed{{by whom|date=April 2021}} as being ''upward'' or ''downward''. With '''downward power''', a [[company]]'s superiors influence subordinates to attain organizational goals. When a company exhibits '''upward power''', subordinates influence the decisions of their [[leader]] or leaders.

==== Referent power ====
{{Main|Referent power}}
Referent power is the power or ability of individuals to attract others and build [[loyalty]]. It is based on the [[charisma]] and [[interpersonal skills]] of the powerholder. A person may be admired because of a specific personal trait, and this admiration creates the opportunity for interpersonal influence. Here, the person under power desires to identify with these personal qualities and gains satisfaction from being an accepted follower. [[Nationalism]] and [[patriotism]] count towards an intangible sort of referent power. For example, soldiers fight in wars to defend the honor of the country. This is the second-least obvious power but the most effective. Advertisers have long used the referent power of sports figures for product endorsements, for example. The charismatic appeal of the sports star supposedly leads to an acceptance of the endorsement, although the individual may have little real credibility outside the sports arena.<ref>{{cite book|title=Management|date=2008|first1=Patrick J.|last1=Montana|first2=Bruce H.|last2=Charnov|edition= 4th|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yJIQ2XGhneUC&pg=PA257 257]|isbn=978-0764139314|publisher=Barron's Educational Series|location=Hauppauge, NY|oclc=175290009}}</ref> Abuse is possible when someone who is likable yet lacks integrity and honesty rises to power, placing them in a situation to gain personal advantage at the cost of the group's position.{{cn|date=October 2024}} Referent power is unstable alone and is not enough for a leader who wants longevity and respect. When combined with other sources of power, however, it can help a person achieve great success.

==== Expert power ====
{{Main|Expert power}}
[[Expert]] power is an individual's power deriving from the skills or expertise of the person and the organization's needs for those skills and expertise. Unlike the others, this type of power is usually highly specific and limited to the particular area in which the expert is trained and qualified. When they have knowledge and skills that enable them to understand a situation, suggest solutions, use solid judgment, and generally outperform others, then people tend to listen to them. When individuals demonstrate expertise, people tend to trust them and respect what they say. As subject-matter experts, their ideas will have more value, and others will look to them for [[leadership]] in that area.

==== Reward power ====
{{Main|Reward power}}
[[Reward system|Reward]] power depends on the ability of the power wielder to confer valued material rewards; it refers to the degree to which the individual can give others a reward of some kind, such as benefits, time off, desired gifts, promotions, or increases in pay or responsibility. This power is obvious, but it is also ineffective if abused. People who abuse reward power can become pushy or be reprimanded for being too forthcoming or 'moving things too quickly'. If others expect to be rewarded for doing what someone wants, there is a high probability that they will do it. The problem with this basis of power is that the rewarder may not have as much control over rewards as may be required. Supervisors rarely have complete control over salary increases, and managers often cannot control all actions in isolation; even a company [[Chief executive officer|CEO]] needs permission from the board of directors for some actions. When an individual uses up available rewards or the rewards do not have enough perceived value for others, their power weakens. One of the frustrations of using rewards is that they often need to be bigger each time if they are to have the same motivational impact. Even then, if rewards are given frequently, people can become so satiated by the reward it loses its effectiveness.{{cn|date=October 2024}}

In terms of [[cancel culture]], the mass ostracization used to reconcile unchecked injustice and abuse of power is an "upward power". Policies for policing the internet against these processes as a pathway for creating due process for handling conflicts, abuses, and harm that is done through established processes are known as "downward power".<ref>{{cite book |last=Schein |first=Larry E. Greiner, Virginia E. |title=Power and organization development : mobilizing power to implement change |date=1988 |publisher=Addison-Wesley |location=Reading, Mass. |isbn=978-0201121858 |edition= Repr. with corrections.}}</ref>

==== Coercive power ====
{{Main|Coercive power}}
{{See also|Coercive control}}
[[Coercive]] power is the application of negative influences. It includes the ability to defer or withhold other rewards. The desire for valued rewards or the fear of having them withheld can ensure the obedience of those under power. Coercive power tends to be the most obvious but least effective form of power, as it builds resentment and resistance from the people who experience it. Threats and [[Punishment (psychology)|punishment]] are common tools of coercion. Implying or threatening that someone will be fired, demoted, denied privileges, or given undesirable assignments – these are characteristics of using coercive power. Extensive use of coercive power is rarely appropriate in an organizational setting, and relying on these forms of power alone will result in a very cold, impoverished style of leadership. This is a type of power commonly seen in the fashion industry by coupling with legitimate power; it is referred to in the industry-specific literature as "glamorization of structural domination and exploitation".<ref>{{Cite news| url=https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2018/sep/02/academic-exposing-ugly-reality-high-fashion-giulia-mensitieri| title=Chanel shoes, but no salary: How one woman exposed the scandal of the French fashion industry| newspaper=The Guardian| date=2 September 2018| last1=Marsh| first1=Stefanie| access-date=5 September 2018| archive-date=28 March 2023| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328071256/https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2018/sep/02/academic-exposing-ugly-reality-high-fashion-giulia-mensitieri| url-status=live}}</ref>