Editing Politics of the Netherlands (section)

== Political institutions ==
Major political institutions are the monarchy, the cabinet, the States General and the judicial system. There are three other High Colleges of State, which stand on an equal footing with parliament but have a less political role, of which the Council of State is the most important. Other levels of government are the municipalities, the water boards and the provinces. Although not mentioned in the Constitution, political parties and the social partners organised in the [[Social and Economic Council]] are important political institutions as well.

The Netherlands does not have a traditional [[separation of powers]]; according to the Constitution, the States General and the government (the monarch and the ministers) share [[legislative power]]. All legislation has to pass through the Council of State ({{langx|nl|Raad van State}}) for advice and the Social and Economic Council advises the government on most socio-economic legislation. [[Executive power]] is reserved for the government. The Social and Economic Council also has the special right to make and enforce legislation in specific sectors, mostly in agriculture. The [[judicial power]] is divided into two separate systems of courts. For civil and [[criminal law]] the independent [[Supreme Court of the Netherlands|Supreme Court]] is the highest court, while for [[administrative law]] the Council of State is the highest court, which is ''ex officio'' chaired by the monarch.

===Monarchy===
{{Main|Monarchy of the Netherlands|List of monarchs of the Netherlands}}

The present monarchy was founded in 1813. After the expulsion of the French, the [[Prince of Orange]] was proclaimed Sovereign Prince of the Netherlands. The new monarchy was confirmed in 1815 at the [[Congress of Vienna]] as part of the re-arrangement of Europe after the fall of [[Napoleon]]. The House of Orange-Nassau was given the present-day Netherlands and Belgium to govern as the [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]]. Between 1815 and 1890, the King of the Netherlands was also [[Grand Duke of Luxembourg]].

The current monarch is [[Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands|Willem-Alexander]], while the [[Line of succession to the Dutch Throne|heir apparent]] is [[Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange]].

Constitutionally, the monarch is [[head of state]] and has a role in the legislative process, as he has to co-sign every law to make it valid. The monarch is also ''ex officio'' chair of the [[Council of State (Netherlands)|Council of State]], which advises the cabinet on every piece of legislation and is the final court for [[administrative law]]. Although King Willem-Alexander takes these functions seriously, he refrains from exerting his power in these positions. Until 2012, the monarch also played a central role in the [[Dutch cabinet formation|formation of a cabinet]] after a [[Elections in the Netherlands|general election]] or a cabinet crisis. The monarch used to appoint the ''informateur'',<ref>{{cite web |title=Taken informateur |url=https://www.tweedekamer.nl/zo_werkt_de_kamer/verkiezingen_en_kabinetsformatie/taken_informateur |website=Tweedekamer.nl |access-date=7 May 2018}}</ref> who chairs the formation talks, after consulting the parliamentary leaders of all parties represented in the lower house of the States General. Because this advice was a matter of public record, the monarch could not easily take a direction that was contrary to the advice of a majority in parliament. On the other hand, what was actually talked about behind the closed doors of the palace was not known. Upon the conclusion of formation talks, the monarch appoints the cabinet. Upon the fall of a government, the Prime Minister has to request the monarch to dismiss the cabinet.

===Cabinet===
{{Main|Cabinet of the Netherlands|Prime Minister of the Netherlands|Ministries of the Netherlands}}

The government of the Netherlands (''regering'') constitutionally consists of the monarch and the ministers. The monarch only plays a role in the appointment of ministers, and is not involved in decision-making. The ministers collectively form the [[Council of Ministers (Netherlands)|Council of Ministers]]. This executive council meets every Friday in the ''Trêveszaal'' at the [[Binnenhof]], and initiates laws and policy. While most of the ministers head government ministries, since 1939 it has been permissible to appoint [[Minister without Portfolio|ministers without portfolio]]. The [[Prime Minister of the Netherlands]] presides over the cabinet and is the most important political figure of the Dutch government.

The national government ({{lang|nl|Rijksoverheid}} or {{lang|nl|het Rijk}}) consists of ministries, the implementing organizations that fall under the responsibility of ministries, inspectorates, and High Councils of State,<ref name="or">{{cite news |title=Organisatie Rijksoverheid |url=https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/rijksoverheid/organisatie-rijksoverheid |access-date=3 July 2021 |publisher=Rijksoverheid.nl}}</ref> and is involved in the preparation and implementation of the plans of the government and parliament.

Some of the [[Historical rankings of Prime Ministers of the Netherlands|most highly regarded]] Prime Ministers of the Netherlands include:
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">

File:Johan Heinrich Neuman - Johan Rudolf Thorbecke (cropped).jpg|[[Johan Rudolph Thorbecke]]<br>(1849–1853;<br>1862–1866,<br>1871–1872)
File:Jan Heemskerk Azn (1818-1897), after Heinrich Wilhelm Wollrabe.jpg|[[Jan Heemskerk]]<br>(1874–1877;<br>1883–1888)
File:Abraham Kuyper 1905 (1).jpg|[[Abraham Kuyper]]<br>(1901–1905)
File:Pieter Cort van der Linden.jpg|[[Pieter Cort van der Linden]]<br>(1913–1918)
File:Hendrik Colijn (1925).jpg|[[Hendrikus Colijn]]<br>(1925–1926;<br>1933–1939)
File:Willem Drees 1958.jpg|[[Willem Drees]]<br>(1948–1958)
File:Piet de Jong 1970.jpg|[[Piet de Jong]]<br>(1967–1971)
File:Ruud Lubbers 1985.jpg|[[Ruud Lubbers]]<br>(1982–1994)
File:Wim Kok 1994.jpg|[[Wim Kok]]<br>(1994–2002) 
File:Jan Peter Balkenende 2006.jpg|[[Jan Peter Balkenende]]<br>(2002–2010)
File:Mark Rutte 2015 (1) (cropped).jpg|[[Mark Rutte]]<br>(2010–2024)
</gallery>

===States General===
{{Main|States General of the Netherlands}}
[[File:Verenigde Vergadering bijeen in Ridderzaal (11192673163).jpg|thumb|Joint session of the States General in the [[Ridderzaal]], 2013]]
The Dutch Parliament, officially known as the States General of the Netherlands, consists of a [[House of Representatives (Netherlands)|House of Representatives]] (''Tweede Kamer'') and a [[Senate (Netherlands)|Senate]] (''Eerste Kamer''). Both chambers are housed in the [[Binnenhof]] in [[The Hague]] and discuss proposed legislation and review the actions of the cabinet. Only the House of Representatives has the right to propose or amend legislation while the Senate discusses its value regarding the Dutch law since the Netherlands has no constitutional court. Currently there are 150 members of the House of Representatives and 75 Senators.

Members of the House are elected directly every four years using [[party-list proportional representation]]. Representatives are chosen on personal title, so when a member no longer agrees with his or her party, the member can decide to stay in the chamber, either as an independent representative, or as a member of another parliamentary party. If a member decides to resign, the empty seat falls to the original party collecting the votes, and is offered to the highest placed candidate on the party's electoral list who was not elected. Coalition governments may fall before their term expires, which usually results in early dissolution of the House and new elections.

Members of the Senate are elected indirectly by provincial councilors, again every four years, just after the elections of the provincial councils, via a system of [[proportional representation]]. Nowadays, the Senate is mainly considered to be a body of elder statesmen reconsidering legislation at ease, away from the pressure of daily political and media hypes. The position of senator is a part-time job as the institution meets once a week.

===Political parties===
{{Main|Political parties of the Netherlands}}
{{Unreferenced section|date=December 2017}}
[[File:Ineke van Gent, Han ten Broeke en Kees Verhoeven, Lancering Europese Mobiliteitsweek 2010.jpg|thumb|Several members of the House of Representatives campaigning for their respective parties in 2010. From left to right: [[Sander de Rouwe]] (CDA), [[Ineke van Gent]] (GL), [[Han ten Broeke]] (VVD), [[Kees Verhoeven]] (D66) and [[Farshad Bashir]] (SP)]]
The system of proportional representation, combined with the historical social division between Catholics, Protestants, socialists and liberals, has resulted in a multiparty system. The parties currently represented in the [[House of Representatives (Netherlands)|Dutch House of Representatives]] are:

* The [[Party for Freedom]] (PVV), a [[National conservatism|nationalist conservative]], [[Right-wing populism|right populist]], and [[Islamophobia|anti-Islam]] party founded and dominated by [[Geert Wilders]], formerly of the VVD. Its philosophy is based on maintaining the integrity of Dutch culture, and opposing immigration and European integration. Mostly economically liberal.
* [[GroenLinks–PvdA]], a political alliance of [[GroenLinks]] and the [[Labour Party (Netherlands)|Labour Party]]. The party combines [[Centre-left politics|centre-left]] [[Social democracy|social democratic]] politics and [[green politics|green]] [[environmentalism|environmentalist]] ideals. It focuses on issues such as climate change, employment, social security and healthcare with traditional left-wing elements. 
* The [[People's Party for Freedom and Democracy]] (VVD), a [[conservative liberal]] party. It has more sympathy for [[private enterprise]] and economic freedom compared to other parties. The VVD has supported prioritising security over civil liberties. While VVD is more market liberal, split party [[Democrats 66|D66]] profiles more [[Social liberalism|social liberal]] stance and leans more to left.
* [[New Social Contract]] (NSC), a [[christian democracy|christian democratic]] party founded in 2023 after [[Pieter Omtzigt]] split from the [[Christian Democratic Appeal|CDA]] two years earlier.
* [[Democrats 66]] (D66), a [[Centrism|centre]] to [[Centre-left politics|centre-left]] [[Social liberalism|social liberal]] party. The party supports liberal policies on social issues such as abortion, drugs, euthanasia and stands for human rights and [[LGBT]] progress. D66 is also a strong supporter of European integration. The party supports secularism, EU integration, and is relatively supportive of civil liberties and privacy.
* [[Farmer–Citizen Movement]] (BBB) is a centre-right to right-wing party that has its roots in [[agrarianism]] and [[rural development]].
* The [[Christian Democratic Appeal]] (CDA), a [[Centrism|centre]] to [[Centre-right politics|centre-right]] [[Christian democracy|Christian democratic]] and moderately [[Conservatism|conservative]] party. It holds to the principle that government activity should supplement but not supplant communal action by citizens. The CDA puts its philosophy between the "[[individualism]]" of the VVD and the "[[statism]]" of the PvdA.
* The [[Socialist Party (Netherlands)|Socialist Party]] (SP), in its first years was a radical-socialist and [[Communism|communist]] party, a [[Maoism|maoist]] split from the [[Communist Party Netherlands]]. It is now a socialist party advocating [[democratic socialism]], rejecting the privatisation of public services and advocating increased social welfare and socialised education and safety.
* [[DENK (political party)|DENK]], a small political party mainly focusing on and promoting multiculturalism and social integration. The party also supports environmentalism and international justice.
* The [[Party for the Animals]] is an [[animal rights]] party, that is often considered a one issue-party, although it claims not to be. The focus of the party is on animal welfare, protecting the environment and conservation. The party also has [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] positions regarding education, privacy, healthcare and the economy.
* [[Forum for Democracy (Netherlands)|Forum for Democracy]] (FvD), a right-wing, nationalist conservative party. In favour of lower taxes, promoting environmental sustainability (while questioning mankind's influence on climate change), military investment and expansion, electoral reform, offering a referendum on [[European Union]] membership, reinstating border controls and ending what it perceives as mass immigration.
* The [[Reformed Political Party]] (SGP), an explicitly religious, radically conservative and theocratic Protestant party. It is a [[testimonial party]]. Only in 2006 and after heavy political pressure were women allowed to be members of this party. Reliably earns 2 or 3 out of 150 seats in parliament.
* The [[Christian Union (Netherlands)|Christian Union]], a Christian democratic and conservative party made up by mostly orthodox Protestant Christians, with conservative stances on [[abortion]], [[euthanasia]] and [[same-sex marriage]]. In other areas the party is considered centre-left, for instance on immigration, the [[welfare state]] and the environment.
* [[Volt Netherlands]], the Dutch branch of the pan-European socially and economically liberal [[Volt Europa]] movement advocating [[pro-Europeanism]] and [[European Federalism|European federalism]] and large civil liberties.
* [[JA21]], a conservative liberal party that emerged after internal conflicts in Forum for Democracy. The party is influenced by the ideas of right-wing politician [[Pim Fortuyn]], who was assassinated in 2002, promoting stricter immigration policies, entrepreneurship and more individual freedoms.

===Council of State===
{{Main|Council of State (Netherlands)}}

The Council of State is an advisory body of cabinet on constitutional and judicial aspects of legislation and policy. All proposed legislation is sent to the Council of State for advice. Although the advice is not binding, the cabinet is required to respond to the advice and it often plays a significant role in the ensuing debate in Parliament. In addition, the Council is the highest [[administrative court]].

The Council is ''ex officio'' chaired by the monarch. The probable heir to the throne becomes a member of the Council when reaching legal adulthood. The monarch leaves daily affairs to the [[Vice-President of the Council of State (Netherlands)|Vice-President of the Council of State]], currently [[Thom de Graaf]], and the other councillors, who are mainly legal specialists, former ministers, members of parliament and judges or professors of law.

===High Councils of State===
The Dutch political system has five so-called [[High Council of State (Netherlands)|High Councils of State]], which are explicitly regarded as independent by the Constitution. Apart from the two Houses of Parliament and the Council of State, these are the [[Court of Audit (Netherlands)|Court of Audit]] and the [[National Ombudsman]].

The Court of Audit investigates whether public funds are collected and spent legitimately and effectively. The National Ombudsman investigates complaints about the functioning and practices of government. As with the advice of the Council of State, the reports from these organisations are not easily put aside and often play a role in public and political debate.

===Judicial system===
{{main|Judiciary of the Netherlands}}
The judiciary comprises eleven district courts, four courts of appeal, three administrative courts of appeal ([[Central Appeals Tribunal]], [[Trade and Industry Appeals Tribunal]] and Council of State) and the [[Supreme Court of the Netherlands|Supreme Court]]. All judicial appointments are made by the Government. Judges are appointed for life until they retire at the age of 70.

===Advisory councils===
As part of the Dutch tradition of depoliticised consensus-based decision making, the government often makes use of advisory councils composed of academic specialists or representatives of stakeholders.

The most prominent advisory council is the [[Social and Economic Council]] ({{langx|nl|Sociaal Economische Raad}}, SER), which is composed of representatives of [[trade union]]s and [[Employers' organization|employers' organisations]], along with government-appointed specialists. It is consulted at an early stage in financial, economic and social policy-making. It advises government and its advice, like the advice of the [[High Council of State (Netherlands)|High Councils of State]], cannot easily be set aside. The SER heads a system of [[Publiekrechtelijke Bedrijfsorganisatie|PBOs]], self-regulating organisations that contribute to making laws for specific economic sectors.

The following organisations are represented in the Social and Economic Council, accounting for two thirds of its membership:
*the left-wing [[Federation of Dutch Trade Unions]],
*the [[Christian National Trade Union Federation]]
*the trade union for managerial staff, the [[Trade Union Federation for Professionals]],
*the [[Employers' organization|employers' organisation]] [[VNO-NCW]],
*the employers' organisation for [[small and medium-sized enterprises]] MKB-Nederland, and
*the employers' organisation for farmers LTO Nederland.

The remaining third of the members of the council are appointed by the government. These include professors of economics and related fields, as well as representatives of the [[Bureau for Economic Policy Analysis]] and [[De Nederlandsche Bank]]. In addition, representatives of environmental and consumers' organisations are represented in SER working groups.

Other prominent advisory bodies are
*the [[Bureau for Economic Policy Analysis]], which forecasts economic development,
*[[Statistics Netherlands]], which studies and reports on social and economic developments,
*[[The Netherlands Institute for Social Research]], which studies long-term social and cultural trends,
*the [[National Institute for Public Health and the Environment]], which advises the government on environmental and health issues, and
*the [[Scientific Council for Government Policy]], which advises the government on long-term social, political and [[Economic forecasting|economic trend]]s.

===Subnational government===
{{Main|Provincial politics in the Netherlands|Municipal politics of the Netherlands}}

The Netherlands is divided into twelve provinces, which are responsible for [[spatial planning]], [[health]] policy and [[recreation]], within the bounds prescribed by the national government. Furthermore, they oversee the policy and finances of municipalities and water boards. [[Provincial council (Netherlands)|Provincial councils]] are directly elected by inhabitants every four years. Executive authority is exercised by the [[King's commissioner|King's (or Queens's) commissioner]] and the College of the [[provincial executive]]. The commissioner is appointed by the national government and is responsible to the [[Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations|Minister of the Interior and Kingdom Relations]]. Members of the provincial executive are appointed by, and responsible to the provincial council.

Local government in the Netherlands is formed by 342 municipalities (as of 2023). Municipalities are responsible for [[education]], [[spatial planning]] and [[social security]], within the bounds prescribed by the national and provincial government. Like provincial councils, [[Municipal council (Netherlands)|municipal councils]] are directly elected every four years. Municipalities are governed by the [[municipal executive]], consisting of the mayor and a number of aldermen. The mayor is appointed by the national government and responsible to the Minister of the Interior and Kingdom Relations. The aldermen are appointed by, and responsible to the municipal council. The major cities of [[Amsterdam (municipality)|Amsterdam]] and [[Rotterdam]] are subdivided into administrative areas ([[stadsdeel|stadsdelen]]), which have their own (limited) responsibilities.

Local government on the [[Caribbean Netherlands]] is formed by three public bodies sometimes called "special municipalities" which are not part of a province. They are governed by a Lieutenant-general ({{langx|nl|gezaghebber}}) and "eilandgedeputeerden" which are responsible to the [[island council (Netherlands)|island council]], which is elected by direct suffrage. Their activities are similar to but wider than those of municipalities.

Furthermore, there are [[water board]]s which are responsible for the country's inland waterways, [[groundwater]] levels, [[polders]], [[Levee|dikes]] and other [[hydraulic engineering|waterwork]]s. These boards are ruled by representatives of companies, farmers and nature conservation organisations and representatives who are elected by citizens in the area. They have the power to tax their residents.