Editing Political philosophy (section)

== Basic concepts ==
Political philosophers rely on various basic concepts to formulate theories and conceptualize the field of [[politics]]. Politics encompasses diverse activities associated with governance, [[Group decision-making|collective decision-making]], [[Conflict resolution|reconciliation of conflicting interests]], and exercise of power. Some theorists characterize it as the art of skillfully engaging in these activities.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=534–535}} | {{harvnb|Stevens|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=q7IhAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA52 52, 77]}} }}</ref>

=== Government, power, and laws ===
The state, a fundamental concept in political philosophy, is an organized political entity. States are associations of people, called ''citizens''. They typically exercise control over a specific [[territory]], implement the [[rule of law]], and function as [[juristic persons]] subject to rights and obligations while [[International relations|engaging with other states]]. However, the precise definition of statehood is disputed. Some philosophical characterizations emphasize the state's [[monopoly on violence]] and the subordination of the will of the many to the will of a dominant few. Another outlook sees the state as a [[social contract]] for mutual benefit and security. States are characterized by their level of organization and the power they wield, in contrast to [[stateless societies]], which are more loosely ordered social groups connected through a less centralized web of relationships. [[Nation]], a related concept, refers to a group of people with a common identity based on shared culture, history, or language. Many states today are [[nation-states]], meaning that their citizens share a common [[national identity]] that aligns with the state's political boundaries. Historically, the first states in [[Ancient period|antiquity]] were [[city-states]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=462, 604, 662–663}} | {{harvnb|Griffin|2005}} | {{harvnb|McLean|McMillan|2009|loc=§ State}} }}</ref>

A [[government]] is an institution that exercises control and governs the people belonging to a political entity, usually a state. Some political philosophers see the government as an end in itself, while others consider it a means to other goods, such as peace and prosperity. Some governments set down fundamental principles, called ''[[constitution]]'', that outline the structure, functions, and limitations of governmental authority, while others exercise unconstrained authority. [[Anarchy|Anarchists]] reject governments and advocate self-governance without a centralized authority.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=279–280}} | {{harvnb|McLean|McMillan|2009|loc=§ Government}} }}</ref>

Political philosophers distinguish various [[forms of government]] based on who wields political power and how it is wielded. In [[democracies]], the main power lies with the people. In [[direct democracies]], citizens vote directly on laws and policies, whereas in [[Representative democracy|indirect democracies]], they elect leaders who make these decisions. Democracies contrast with [[authoritarian regimes]], which reject political plurality and suppress dissent through centralized, hierarchical power structures. In the case of [[autocracies]], absolute power is vested in a single person, such as a [[monarch]]{{efn|The belief that monarchy is the best form of government is known as ''[[monarchism]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|McLean|2005|loc=§ Monarchism}}</ref>}} or a [[dictator]]. For [[oligarchies]], power is concentrated in the hands of a few, typically the wealthy. An authoritarian regime is [[totalitarian]] if it seeks extensive control over public and private life, such as [[fascism]], which combines totalitarianism with nationalist and [[militarist]] political ideologies.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fiala|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XXApBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA233 233–234, 236, 244, 253]}} | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=t9uGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 36–38, 47–49, 169–170, 244–245, 491–492, 695–696]}} }}</ref>

[[Aristocracy]], another form of government, implements rule by the elites, such as a privileged ruling class or [[nobility]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fiala|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XXApBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA227 227–228]}} | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=t9uGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 36–38]}} }}</ref> In the case of [[meritocracies]], the ruling elites are chosen by skill rather than social background.<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|McLean|McMillan|2018|loc=§ Meritocracy}}</ref> For [[technocracies]], people with technical skills, such as engineers and scientists, wield political power.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Park|2007|loc=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198609957.001.0001/acref-9780198609957-e-8113 Technocracy]}} | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=t9uGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA682 682–683]}} }}</ref> [[Theocracies]] prioritize religious authority in political decision-making, implement religious laws, and claim legitimacy by following the [[divine will]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fiala|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XXApBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA252 252]}} | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=t9uGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA687 687–688]}} }}</ref> Political philosophers further discuss [[federalism]] and [[confederalism]], which are systems of governance involving multiple levels: in addition to a central national government, there are several regional governments with distinct responsibilities and powers. These systems contrast with [[colonialism]],{{efn|Similar to colonialism, [[imperialism]] and [[expansionism]] are attempts by states to increase their territory and power over other states.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fiala|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XXApBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA230 230, 239–240]}} | {{harvnb|Brown|McLean|McMillan|2018|loc=§ Imperialism}} | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=t9uGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA110 110, 235, 320–321]}} }}</ref>}} where occupied territories are exploited rather than treated as equal partners, and with [[unitary state]]s, where authority is centralized at the national level.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fiala|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XXApBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA230 230, 237, 239–240, 253]}} | {{harvnb|Law|Martin|2013}} }}</ref>

A key aspect of governments and other political institutions is the [[Power (social and political)|power]] they wield. Power is the ability to produce intended effects or control what people and institutions do. It can be based on [[consent]], like people following a charismatic leader, but can also take the form of [[coercion]], such as a tyrannical ruler enforcing compliance through fear and [[Political repression|repression]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=543–544}} | {{harvnb|McLean|McMillan|2009|loc=§ Power}} }}</ref> The powers of government typically include the [[legislative power]] to establish new laws or revoke existing ones, the [[executive power]] to enforce laws, and the [[judicial power]] to arbitrate legal disputes. Governments following the [[separation of powers]] have distinct branches for each function to prevent overconcentration and [[abuse of power]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McLean|McMillan|2009|loc=§ Separation of Power}} | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=627–628}} }}</ref> Language is a central aspect of political power, serving as a medium of [[communication]] and a force shaping public opinion. Linguistic power dynamics are reflected in the control of the [[means of communication]], such as [[mass media]], and in the [[freedom of speech]] of each individual.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=t9uGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA118 118, 379 379–380]}} | {{harvnb|McLean|McMillan|2009|loc=§ Language}} }}</ref>

[[Legitimacy (political)|Legitimacy]], another fundamental concept, is the rightful or justified use of power. Political philosophers examine whether, why, and under what conditions the powers exercised by a government are legitimate. Often-discussed requirements include that power is acquired following established rules and used for rightful ends.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=388–389}} | {{harvnb|Beetham|1998|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> For instance, the rules of [[representative democracies]] assert that [[elections]] determine who acquires power as the legitimate ruler. [[Authority]], a closely related concept, is the right to rule or the common belief that someone is legitimized to exercise power. In some cases, a person may have authority even if they lack the effective power to act. Some theorists also talk of ''illegitimate authority'' in situations where the common belief in the legitimacy of a use of power is mistaken.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=47–48, 169–171}} | {{harvnb|Friedrich|1972|pp=89–90}} | {{harvnb|Green|1998|loc=Lead section, § 1. The Nature and Forms of Authority}} }}</ref>

Governments typically use [[laws]] to wield power. Laws are rules of social conduct that describe how people and institutions may or may not act. According to [[natural law theory]], laws are or should be expressions of universal [[Morality|moral]] principles inherent in human nature. This view contrasts with [[legal positivism]], which sees laws as human [[Convention (norm)|conventions]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=381–382}} | {{harvnb|Jori|1998|loc=Lead section, § 1. Positivism Versus Natural Law Theory}} }}</ref> [[Political obligation]] is the [[duty]] of citizens to follow the laws of their political community. Political philosophers examine in what sense citizens are subject to political obligations even if they did not explicitly consent to them. Political obligation may or may not align with moral obligation{{em dash}}the duty to follow moral principles. For example, if an [[authoritarian state]] imposes laws that violate basic [[human rights]], citizens may have a moral obligation to [[Disobedience|disobey]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Walzer|2005}} | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=381–382}} | {{harvnb|McLean|McMillan|2009|loc=§ Obligation}} }}</ref>

Laws governing [[property]] are foundational to many [[legal systems]]. Property is the right to control a good, including the rights to use, consume, lend, sell, and destroy it. It covers both material goods, like [[natural resources]], and immaterial goods, such as [[copyrights]] associated with [[intellectual property]]. [[Public property]] pertains to the state or community, whereas [[private property]] belongs to other entities, such as individual citizens. Various discussions in political philosophy address the advantages and disadvantages of private property.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=555, 562–563}} | {{harvnb|Grunebaum|2005}} }}</ref> For example, [[communism]] seeks to abolish most forms of private property in favor of [[collective ownership]] to promote economic equality.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=118–119}} | {{harvnb|Grunebaum|2005}} }}</ref>

=== Justice, equality, and liberty ===
[[File:John Rawls (1971 photo portrait).jpg|thumb|upright=.8|alt=Black-and-white photo of a man with glasses wearing a collared shirt under a sweater|[[John Rawls]] formulated an influential theory of [[justice as fairness]].<ref name="books.google.com">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Moseley|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bXU8CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA194 194]}} | {{harvnb|Wenar|2021|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref>]]
Diverse concepts in political philosophy act as values or goals of political processes.<ref>{{harvnb|Tuckness|Wolf|2016|pp=xiii–xiv, 5–6}}</ref> [[Justice]] is a complex concept at the core of many political concerns. It is specifically associated with the idea that people should be treated fairly and receive what they deserve. More broadly, it also refers to appropriate behavior and moral conduct, but its exact meaning varies by context: it can be an aspect of [[Action (philosophy)|actions]], a [[virtue]] of actors, or a structural feature of social situations. In the context of social life, [[social justice]] encompasses various aspects of fairness and equality in regard to wealth, assets, and other advantages. It includes the idea of [[distributive justice]], which promotes an impartial allocation of resources, goods, and opportunities. In legal contexts, [[retributive justice]] deals with [[punishment]], with one principle being that the harm inflicted on an offender is proportional to their [[crime]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=361–362, 643–644}} | {{harvnb|Miller|2025|loc=Lead section, § 1. Justice: Mapping the Concept}} | {{harvnb|McLean|McMillan|2009|loc=§ Justice, § Social Justice}} }}</ref>

Justice is closely related to equality, the ideal that individuals should have the same rights, opportunities, or resources. [[Equality before the law]] is the principle that all individuals are subject to the same legal standards, rights, and obligations. [[Political equality]] concerns the abilities to vote for someone and to become a candidate for a political position. [[Equal opportunity]] is the ideal that everyone should have the same chances in life, meaning that success should be based on merit rather than circumstances of birth or social class. This contrasts with [[equality of outcome]], the idea that all people should have similar levels of material wealth and [[living standards]]. Philosophers of politics examine and compare different conceptions of equality, discussing which of its aspects should guide political action. They also consider the influence of [[discrimination]], which refers to unfair treatment based on [[Race (human categorization)|race]], [[gender]], [[sexuality]], and [[Social class|class]] that can undermine equality. The school of political thought known as [[egalitarianism]] sees equality as one of the main goals of political action.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=187, 217–218}} | {{harvnb|McLean|McMillan|2009|loc=§ Equality, § Discrimination}} | {{harvnb|Carter|2016|loc=§ Preliminary}} }}</ref>

[[Liberty]] or [[freedom]]{{efn|The two terms are often used as synonyms, but some philosophers distinguish their meanings.<ref>{{harvnb|Feinberg|1998|loc=Lead section, § 1. Freedom and Liberty}}</ref>}} is the ideal that people may act according to their will without oppressive restrictions. Political philosophers typically distinguish two complementary aspects of liberty: [[positive liberty]]{{em dash}}the power to act in a certain way{{em dash}}and [[negative liberty]]{{em dash}}the absence of obstacles or interference from others. Liberty is a key value of [[liberalism]], a school of political philosophy.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=398–399}} | {{harvnb|McLean|McMillan|2009|loc=§ Freedom}} | {{harvnb|Ricciardi|2016|loc=§ Preliminary}} | {{harvnb|Feinberg|1998|loc=Lead section, § 1. Freedom and Liberty}} }}</ref> Competing schools of thought debate whether laws necessarily limit liberty by restricting individual actions to protect the common good or enable it by creating a safe framework in which individuals can exercise their rights freely.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WxAVSJlyIu4C&pg=PA137 137–138]}}</ref> Liberty as an ability to do something is sometimes distinguished from [[license]], which involves explicit [[Permission (philosophy)|permission]] to do something.<ref>{{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=398–399}}</ref> [[Autonomy]], another closely related concept, is the ability to make informed decisions and govern oneself by being one's own master.<ref>{{harvnb|Feinberg|1998|loc=Lead section, § 2 Freedom as Autonomy}}</ref>

Welfare, [[well-being]], and [[happiness]] express the general [[quality of life]] of an individual and are central standards for evaluating policies and political institutions. Some philosophers understand these phenomena as subjective experiences, linked to the presence of [[Pleasure|pleasant]] feelings, the absence of unpleasant ones, and a positive self-assessment of one's life. Others propose an [[Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)|objective interpretation]], arguing that the relevant factors can be objectively measured, such as economic prosperity, health, education, and security. Various schools of political thought, such as [[utilitarianism]] and [[welfarism]], see happiness or well-being as the ultimate goal of political actions.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tuckness|Wolf|2016|pp=5–7, 23–24}} | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=732–733}} | {{harvnb|Bradley|2015|pp=80–82}} | {{harvnb|Bramble|2020|loc=§ What Is Welfarism?}} }}</ref> [[Welfare state]]s are states that prioritize the social and economic well-being of their citizens through measures such as affordable [[healthcare]] systems, [[social security]], and free access to education for all.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McLean|McMillan|2009|loc=§ Welfare state}} | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|p=733}} }}</ref>