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Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana
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===20th century to present=== Because Plaquemines Parish encompasses the last {{convert|70|mi|km}} of the Mississippi River before it reaches the Gulf of Mexico, it is the site of several oil refineries, which rely on the shipping lanes for moving their product. The [[Mississippi River Delta]] of Plaquemines is also a base for assistance to offshore oil rigs. Plaquemines Parish was the first place in the United States where shippers used a [[Intermodal container|container]] for cargo in foreign trade. The area is also known for having the southernmost point in Louisiana, at just under 29 degrees north. In the early 1900s, Plaquemines was an exporter of citrus. Farmers used the railroads and the Mississippi to ship the large annual harvest to markets. Commercial fisheries, especially for oysters, have been important in the parish economy. From 1924 to 1969, Plaquemines and St. Bernard parishes were effectively the domain of the Democratic [[political boss]] [[Leander Perez]], who established a strong hold over the area.<ref name="Jeansonne">Glen Jeansonne, ''Leander Perez: Boss of the Delta'' {{ISBN|1604736372}}</ref> He was notorious for fixing elections and enforcing strict [[racial segregation]]. Upon his death, his sons Leander Perez Jr., and Chalin O. Perez were elected as the dominant political figures of the parish as district attorney and parish president, respectively. Interpersonal feuding weakened the family's hold on power. After another decade, by 1980 political opponents had begun to win local elections.<ref name="Jeansonne"/> The Civil Rights struggle for African-Americans to become registered voters in Plaquemines Parish began in October 1946, under the guidance of Dr. Rev. Percy Murphy Griffin. With the aid of Attorneys Earl Amedee and [[Louis Berry]] from New Orleans, Griffin and twenty-six African-Americans from Plaquemines Parish organized the Plaquemines Parish Civil and Political Organization, Inc., to fight racial barriers established by Perez. In the summer of 1953, the group organized a voter registration drive for African Americans. In 1954, [[Irene Griffin (activist)|Irene Griffin]] became the first black woman to register to vote in the parish.<ref name="Irene Griffin Nola">{{cite news |title=Irene Griffin, first black woman to register to vote in Plaquemines Parish, dies at 84 |url=https://duckduckgo.com/?q=first+black+woman+to+vote&atb=v120-6__&ia=web |access-date=December 29, 2018 |newspaper=New Orleans Times-Picayune |date=March 29, 2012 |quote=Mrs. Griffin was an ardent supporter of her husband's efforts to take on segregationist Judge Leander Perez Sr. When the Rev. Griffin returned home in 1946 after serving in World War II, he started a voter registration campaign for black residents. Mrs. Griffin became the first black woman to register to vote in 1954.}}</ref> The organization filed [[class-action suit]]s against Leander Perez and in 1953, several African-Americans became registered voters in Plaquemines Parish. In 1966, the organization led the fight to integrate public schools. The movement also worked to get Seymourville and another small community included within the parish boundaries; the city had sought to exclude these majority-black communities to prevent black votes from being counted.<ref>[http://www.thirteen.org/thirteen-fifty-years/videos/louisiana-diary/ ''Louisiana Diary''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140803043507/http://www.thirteen.org/thirteen-fifty-years/videos/louisiana-diary/ |date=August 3, 2014 }}, March 16, 1964, Written, directed and narrated by Richard O. Moore, aired on PBS</ref> The [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] ended legal segregation, and the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]] authorized federal oversight and enforcement of voter registration and elections in jurisdictions with historic under-representation of minority elements of the population. After 1965, African Americans in Louisiana began full participation in Louisiana politics. ====Hurricanes and flooding==== Plaquemines Parish has repeatedly been hit by flooding. The [[1901 Atlantic hurricane season#Hurricane Four|August 1901 Hurricane]] caused damage, including 4 feet of water in [[Buras, Louisiana|Buras]].<ref>[http://www.thecajuns.com/lahurricanes.htm "Louisiana Hurricanes"], The Cajuns</ref> The [[1915 New Orleans Hurricane|Great Hurricane of 1915]] devastated much of the parish, with multiple [[levee]] breaches on both sides of the Mississippi, a 12-foot [[storm surge]], and hundreds of deaths. Homelessness was widespread, and many people were reduced to starvation until charitable aid arrived.<ref>[http://files.usgwarchives.net/la/plaquemines/history/hurc1915.txt "Hurricane of 1915: Plaquemines Parish History"]</ref> The old Parish Courthouse in Pointe Γ la Hache was among the many buildings destroyed in the storm, but a new one was completed within the year. During the [[Great Mississippi Flood of 1927]], city and state leaders used [[dynamite]] to breach a [[levee]] at [[Caernarvon, Louisiana|Caernarvon]], {{convert|13|mi|km|spell=in}} below Canal Street, in order to save the city of [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] from flooding. This action resulted in the flooding of much of the less populated St. Bernard and Plaquemines parishes, causing widespread destruction to agriculture and housing. In 1965, [[Hurricane Betsy]] flooded many buildings, including the parish courthouse, and caused nine deaths. Leander Perez sealed off the parish to control the distribution of state assistance.<ref>Jeansonne; ''Leander Perez'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=A2ZXz67oSdAC&dq=jeansonne%20leander%20perez&pg=PA354 p. 354]</ref> Again in 1969, [[Hurricane Camille]] devastated portions of Plaquemines Parish. Storm surge over 10 feet, winds over 100 miles per hour, and peak pressure at 941 hPa devastated [[Buras, Louisiana]], [[Venice, Louisiana]], and many more towns and cities. [[Hurricane Katrina]] struck Louisiana on August 29, 2005, resulting in one of the worst disasters in United States history; it severely damaged all of southeast Louisiana. [[Martial law]] was not declared in Plaquemines, contrary to many media reports, as no such term exists in Louisiana state law.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.slate.com/id/2125584/nav/tap1/|title=What Is Martial Law?|last=McDonell|first=Keelin|date=September 2, 2005|work=Slate|access-date=March 6, 2018|language=en-US|issn=1091-2339}}</ref> Plaquemines was the place where the hurricane made landfall at 6.10 a.m. No place escaped without some damage, while most of Plaquemines, [[Orleans Parish, Louisiana|Orleans]], and neighboring [[St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana|St. Bernard]] parishes was severely affected. The towns of [[Pointe a la Hache, Louisiana|Pointe Γ la Hache]], [[Port Sulphur, Louisiana|Port Sulphur]], [[Buras, Louisiana|Buras]], [[Triumph, Louisiana|Triumph]], [[Empire, Louisiana|Empire]], [[Boothville, Louisiana|Boothville]], Phoenix, and [[Venice, Louisiana|Venice]] suffered catastrophic damage. Amid heavy rains accompanied by hurricane-force winds in excess of {{convert|120|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} at initial landfall (with a Category 5 storm surge), the [[levee]]s failed and broke. The [[storm surge]] which flowed in was more than {{convert|20|ft|m}} high. Although a majority of the populace had complied with mandatory state evacuation orders, some did not, possibly because they were not able to. At least three people died.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}} It is estimated that without significant human intervention, Plaquemines Parish will lose 55% of its current land to rising sea levels over the next 50 years.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/08/us/fema-disaster-recovery-climate-change.html?action=click&module=Top%20Stories&pgtype=Homepage|title=As Storms Keep Coming, FEMA Spends Billions in 'Cycle' of Damage and Repair|work=The New York Times |date=October 8, 2018 |access-date=October 9, 2018|language=en |last1=Sack |first1=Kevin |last2=Schwartz |first2=John }}</ref>
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