Editing Philosopher's stone (section)

==Middle Ages==
In the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the [[Caliphate|Arab empire]]s, early medieval alchemists built upon the work of Zosimos. Byzantine and [[Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam|Muslim alchemists]] were fascinated by the concept of metal transmutation and attempted to carry out the process.<ref name="Strohmaier">{{Cite book |last=Strohmaier |first=Gotthard |title=Hellas im Islam: Interdisziplinare Studien zur Ikonographie, Wissenschaft und Religionsgeschichte |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=2003 |isbn=9783447046374 |pages=147–150 |chapter=Umara ibn Hamza, Constantine V, and the invention of the elixir}}</ref> The eighth-century [[Muslim]] alchemist [[Jabir ibn Hayyan]] ([[Latin]]ized as ''Geber'') analysed each classical element in terms of the four basic qualities. Fire was both hot and dry, earth cold and dry, water cold and moist, and air hot and moist. He theorized that every metal was a combination of these four principles, two of them interior and two exterior. From this premise, it was reasoned that the transmutation of one metal into another could be effected by the rearrangement of its basic qualities. This change would be mediated by a substance, which came to be called ''xerion'' in Greek and ''al-iksir'' in Arabic (from which the word ''[[elixir]]'' is derived). It was often considered to exist as a dry red powder (also known as ''al-kibrit al-ahmar'', red sulfur) made from a legendary stone—the philosopher's stone.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ragai |first=Jehane |date=1992 |title=The Philosopher's Stone: Alchemy and Chemistry |journal=Alif: Journal of Comparative Poetics |volume=12 |pages=58–77 |doi=10.2307/521636 |jstor=521636}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Holmyard |first=E. J. |year=1924 |title=Maslama al-Majriti and the Rutbatu'l-Hakim |journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]] |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=293–305 |doi=10.1086/358238 |s2cid=144175388}}</ref> The elixir powder came to be regarded as a crucial component of transmutation by later Arab alchemists.<ref name="Strohmaier" />

In the 11th century, there was a debate among [[Muslim world]] [[chemist]]s on whether the transmutation of substances was possible. A leading opponent was the Persian polymath [[Avicenna]] (Ibn Sina), who discredited the theory of the transmutation of substances, stating, "Those of the chemical craft know well that no change can be effected in the different species of substances, though they can produce the appearance of such change."<ref>[[Robert Briffault]] (1938). ''The Making of Humanity''.</ref>{{rp|196–197}}

According to legend, the 13th-century scientist and philosopher, [[Albertus Magnus]], is said to have discovered the philosopher's stone. Magnus does not confirm he discovered the stone in his writings, but he did record that he witnessed the creation of gold by "transmutation".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Franklyn |first1=Julian |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/648371829 |title=A Survey of the occult |last2=Budd |first2=F. E. |date=2001 |publisher=Electric Book Co |isbn=978-1-84327-087-4 |location=London |oclc=648371829}}</ref>{{rp|28–30}}