Editing Philip II of Spain (section)

==Domestic policy==
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After living in the [[Spanish Netherlands|Netherlands]] in the early years of his reign,<ref>Parker, Geoffrey, ''The Dutch Revolt'' (1977, rev. ed. 1985). London: Penguin, p. 41.</ref> Philip II decided to return to Castile. Although sometimes described as an absolute monarch, Philip faced many constitutional constraints on his authority, influenced by the growing strength of the bureaucracy. The [[Spanish Empire]] was not a single monarchy with one legal system but a [[personal union]] of separate realms, each jealously guarding its own rights against those of the [[House of Habsburg]]. In practice, Philip often found his authority overruled by local assemblies and his word less effective than that of local lords.<ref>Parker, ''The Dutch Revolt'', p. 42.</ref>

Philip carried [[List of titles and honours of the Heir Apparent to the Spanish Throne#Titles held by the heir apparent to the Spanish Throne|several titles]] as [[List of heirs to the Spanish throne|heir to the Spanish kingdoms and empire]], including [[Prince of Asturias]]. The newest constituent kingdom in the empire was [[Upper Navarre]], a realm invaded by [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] mainly with Castilian troops (1512), and annexed to Castile with an ambiguous status (1513). [[Spanish conquest of Iberian Navarre|War across Navarre]] continued until the 1528 ([[Treaty of Madrid (1526)#Madrid|Treaties of Madrid and Cambrai]]). Charles V proposed to end hostilities with King [[Henry II of Navarre]]—the legitimate monarch of Navarre—by marrying his son Philip to the heiress of Navarre, [[Jeanne III of Navarre]]. The marriage would provide a dynastic solution to instability in Navarre, making him king of all Navarre (Upper and [[Lower Navarre|Lower]]) and a prince of the independent [[Viscounty of Béarn|Béarn]], as well as lord of part of southwestern France. However, the French nobility under [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] opposed the arrangement and successfully ended the prospects of marriage between the heirs of Habsburg and Albret in 1541.

[[File:Philip II of Spain by Antonio Moro.jpg|thumb|left|Philip, in the prime of his life, by [[Anthonis Mor]]]]

In his will, Charles stated his doubts over Navarre and recommended that his son give the kingdom back. Both King Charles and his son Philip II failed to abide by the elective (contractual) nature of the Crown of Navarre and took the kingdom for granted. This sparked mounting tension not only with King Henry II and Queen Jeanne III of Navarre but also with the Parliament of the Spanish Navarre (''Cortes'', ''The Three States'') and the ''Diputación'' for breach of the [[Fueros of Navarre|realm specific laws (fueros)]]—violation of the ''pactum subjection is'' as ratified by Ferdinand. Tensions in Navarre came to a head in 1592 after several years of disagreements over the agenda of the intended parliamentary session.

In [[Cortes of Tarazona (1592)|November 1592]], the Parliament (''Cortes'') of Aragón revolted against another breach of the realm-specific laws, so the Attorney General (''Justicia'') of the kingdom, Juan de Lanuza, was executed on Philip II's orders, with his [[Secretary of State (Ancient Regime in Spain)|secretary]] [[Antonio Pérez (statesman)|Antonio Pérez]] taking exile in France. In Navarre, the major strongholds of the kingdom were garrisoned by troops alien to the kingdom (Castilians) in a conspicuous violation of the local laws, and the Parliament had long been refusing to pledge loyalty to Philip II's son and heir apparent without a proper ceremony. On 20 November 1592 a ghostly Parliament session was called, pushed by Philip II, who had arrived in [[Pamplona]] at the head of an unspecified military force, and with one only point on his agenda—attendance to the session was kept blank on the minutes: unlawful appointments of trusted Castilian officials and imposition of his son as the future king of Navarre at the [[Pamplona Cathedral|Santa Maria Cathedral]]. A ceremony was held before the bishop of Pamplona (22 November), but its customary procedure and terms were altered. Protests erupted in Pamplona, but they were quelled.

[[File:Jooris van der Straeten - Portrait of Philip II of Spain.jpg|thumb|Philip II wearing the [[order of the garter]] by [[Jooris van der Straeten]], {{c.}} 1554]]

Philip II also grappled with the problem of the large [[Morisco]] population in the Spanish kingdoms, who had been forcibly converted to Christianity by his predecessors. In 1569, the [[Morisco Revolt]] broke out in the southern [[Kingdom of Granada (Crown of Castile)|Kingdom of Granada]] in defiance of attempts to suppress Moorish customs. Philip ordered the expulsion of the Moriscos from Granada and their dispersal to other provinces.

Despite its immense dominions, the Spanish kingdoms had a sparse population that yielded a limited income to the crown (in contrast to [[Kingdom of France|France]], for example, which was much more heavily populated). Philip faced major difficulties in raising taxes, and the collection was largely farmed out to local lords. He was able to finance his military campaigns only by taxing and exploiting the local resources of his empire. The flow of income from the [[New World]] proved vital to his militant foreign policy, but his exchequer several times faced bankruptcy.

Spanish culture flourished during Philip's reign, beginning the "[[Spanish Golden Age]]", creating a lasting legacy in literature, music, and the visual arts. One of the notable artists from Philip II's court was [[Sofonisba Anguissola]], who gained fame for her talent and unusual role as a woman artist.