Editing Pergamon (section)

==History==

===Pre-Hellenistic period===
Earlier habitation in the [[Bronze Age]] cannot be demonstrated, although Bronze Age [[stone tool]]s are found in the surrounding area.<ref>[[Kurt Bittel]], "Zur ältesten Besiedlungsgeschichte der unteren Kaïkos-Ebene," in Kurt Bittel (ed.): ''Kleinasien und Byzanz. Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Altertumskunde und Kunstgeschichte. Martin Schede zu seinem sechzigsten Geburtstag am 20. Oktober 1943 im Manuskript überreicht.'' W. de Gruyter, Berlin 1950, pp. 17–29 (''Istanbuler Forschungen''. Vol. 17).</ref>

Settlement of Pergamon can be detected as far back as the [[Archaic Greece|Archaic period]], thanks to modest archaeological finds, especially fragments of pottery imported from the west, particularly eastern Greece and [[Corinth]], which date to the late 8th century BC.<ref>Jörg Schäfer: ''Hellenistische Keramik aus Pergamon''. de Gruyter, Berlin 1968, p. 14 (''Pergamenische Forschungen''. Vol. 2).</ref>

The earliest mention of Pergamon in literary sources comes from [[Xenophon]]'s ''[[Anabasis (Xenophon)|Anabasis]]'', since the march of the [[Ten Thousand]] under Xenophon's command ended at Pergamon in 400/399 BC.<ref>
[[Xenophon]], ''Anabasis'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Xen.+Anab.+7.8.8 7.8.8]; ''[[Hellenica]]'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Xen.+Hell.+3.1.6 3.1.6].</ref> Xenophon, who calls the city Pergamos, handed over the rest of his Greek troops (some 5,000 men according to [[Diodorus]]) to [[Thimbron (fl. 400–391 BC)|Thibron]], who was planning an expedition against the Persian [[satrap]]s [[Tissaphernes]] and [[Pharnabazus II|Pharnabazus]], at this location in March 399 BC. At this time Pergamon was in the possession of the family of [[Gongylos]] from [[Eretria]], a Greek favourable to the [[Achaemenid Empire]] who had taken refuge in Asia Minor and obtained the territory of Pergamon from [[Xerxes I]], and Xenophon was hosted by his widow Hellas.<ref>Xenophon, ''Anabasis'' 7.8.7–8.</ref>

In 362 BC, [[Orontes I|Orontes]], satrap of Mysia, used Pergamon as his base for an unsuccessful revolt against the Persian Empire.<ref>''Altertümer von Pergamon''. 8.2, pp. 578–581 No. 613.</ref> Only with [[Alexander the Great]] were Pergamon and the surrounding area removed from Persian control. There are few traces of the pre-Hellenistic city, since in the following period the terrain was profoundly changed and the construction of broad terraces involved the removal of almost all earlier structures. Parts of the temple of [[Athena]], as well as the walls and foundations of the altar in the sanctuary of [[Demeter]], go back to the fourth century.

<gallery mode="packed" widths="140px" heights="145px">
MYSIA, Pergamon. Mid 5th century BCE.jpg|Possible coinage of the Greek ruler [[Gongylos]], wearing the Persian cap on the reverse, as ruler of Pergamon for the [[Achaemenid Empire]]. Pergamon, [[Mysia]], circa 450 BC. The name of the city ΠΕΡΓ ("PERG"), appears for the first on this coinage, and is the first evidence for the name of the city.<ref name="RD">{{cite book |last1=Dreyfus |first1=Renée |title=Pergamon: The Telephos Friez from the Great Altar; [exhibition, The Metrolopitan Museum of Art, New York, N. Y., 16 January - 14 April 1996...] |date=1996 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=9780884010890 |page=104 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HdiF2H5C2m0C&pg=PA104 |language=en}}</ref>
MYSIA, Adramyteion. Orontes, Satrap of Mysia. Circa 357-352 BC.jpg|Coin of [[Orontes I|Orontes]], Achaemenid Satrap of [[Mysia]] (including Pergamon), Adramyteion. Circa 357-352 BC
</gallery>

===Hellenistic period===
[[File:EmenesICoin.JPG|thumb|upright=0.75|Image of [[Philetaerus]] on a coin of [[Eumenes I]]]]
[[File:Pergamon188BCE.jpg|thumb|The ''[[Kingdom of Pergamon]]'', shown at its greatest extent in 188&nbsp;BC]]
[[File:AtaloPergamo.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|Over-life-size portrait head, probably of [[Attalus I]]]]
[[Lysimachus]], King of [[Thrace]], took possession in 301&nbsp;BC, and the town was enlarged by his lieutenant [[Philetaerus]]. In 281 BC the kingdom of Thrace collapsed and Philetaerus became an independent ruler, founding the [[Attalid dynasty]]. His family ruled Pergamon from 281 until 133 BC: Philetaerus 281–263; [[Eumenes I]] 263–241; [[Attalus I]] 241–197; [[Eumenes II]] 197–159; [[Attalus II]] 159–138; and [[Attalus III]] 138–133. Philetaerus controlled only Pergamon and its immediate environs, but the city acquired much new territory under Eumenes I. In particular, after the Battle of [[Sardis]] in 261 BC against [[Antiochus I]], Eumenes was able to appropriate the area down to the coast and some way inland. Despite this increase of his domain, Eumenes did not take a royal title. In 238 his successor Attalus I defeated the [[Galatians (people)|Galatians]], to whom Pergamon had paid tribute under Eumenes I.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Catholic|inline=1|wstitle=Pergamus}}</ref> Attalus thereafter declared himself leader of an entirely independent Pergamene kingdom.

The Attalids became some of the most loyal supporters of [[Roman Republic|Rome]] in the Hellenistic world. Attalus I allied with Rome against [[Philip V of Macedon]], during the [[First Macedonian War|first]] and [[Second Macedonian War|second]] [[Macedonian Wars]]. In the [[Roman–Seleucid War]], Pergamon joined the Romans' coalition against [[Antiochus III]], and was rewarded with almost all the former [[Seleucid]] domains in [[Asia Minor]] at the [[Peace of Apamea]] in 188 BC. The kingdom's territories thus reached their greatest extent. Eumenes II supported Rome again in the [[Third Macedonian War]], but the Romans heard rumours of his conducting secret negotiations with their opponent [[Perseus of Macedon]]. On this basis, Rome denied any reward to Pergamon and attempted to replace Eumenes with the future Attalus II, who refused to cooperate. These incidents cost Pergamon its privileged status with the Romans, who granted it no further territory.

Nevertheless, under the brothers Eumenes II and Attalus II, Pergamon reached its apex and was rebuilt on a monumental scale. It had retained the same dimensions for a long interval after its founding by Philetaerus, covering c. {{convert|21|ha}}. After 188&nbsp;BC a massive new city wall was constructed, {{convert|4|km}} long and enclosing an area of approximately {{convert|90|ha}}.<ref name=errington/> The Attalids' goal was to create a second [[Athens]], a cultural and artistic hub of the Greek world. They remodeled their Acropolis after the [[Acropolis]] in Athens, and the [[Library of Pergamum|Library of Pergamon]] was renowned as second only to the [[Library of Alexandria]]. Pergamon was also a flourishing center for the production of [[parchment]], whose name is a corruption of ''pergamenos'', meaning "from Pergamon". Despite this etymology, parchment had been used in Asia Minor long before the rise of the city; the story that it was invented by the Pergamenes, to circumvent the [[Ptolemies]]' monopoly on [[papyrus]] production, is not true.<ref>P. Green, ''Alexander to Actium. The historical evolution of the Hellenistic age'', p. 168.</ref> In fact, parchment had been in use in Anatolia and elsewhere long before the rise of Pergamon.<ref name=Green1990>{{cite book|last=Green|first=Peter|title=Alexander to Actium: the historical evolution of the Hellenistic age|url=https://archive.org/details/alexandertoactiu0000gree|url-access=registration|place=Berkeley|publisher=University of California Press|year=1990|isbn=0520056116|page=[https://archive.org/details/alexandertoactiu0000gree/page/168 168]}}</ref><ref name=Metzger2005>{{Cite book|last=Metzger|first=Bruce|title=The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|edition=4th|pages=8}}</ref>

Surviving epigraphic documents show how the Attalids supported the growth of towns by sending in skilled artisans and by remitting taxes. They allowed the Greek cities in their domains to maintain nominal independence, and sent gifts to Greek cultural sites like [[Delphi]], [[Delos]], and Athens. The two brothers Eumenes II and Attalus II displayed the most distinctive trait of the Attalids: a pronounced sense of family without rivalry or intrigue - rare amongst the Hellenistic dynasties.<ref>Elizabeth Kosmetatou, "The Attalids of Pergamon" in Andrew Erskine, ''Companion to the Hellenistic World''. Blackwell Publishing, 2003. pp.159-174.</ref> Attalus II bore the epithet 'Philadelphos', 'he who loves his brother', and his relations with Eumenes II were compared to the harmony between the mythical brothers [[Cleobis and Biton]].<ref>[[Polybius]] 22.20.</ref>

When Attalus III died without an heir in 133&nbsp;BC, he bequeathed the whole of Pergamon to Rome. This was challenged by [[Eumenes III|Aristonicus]], who claimed to be Attalus III's brother and led an [[Aristonicus uprising|armed uprising]] against the Romans with the help of [[Blossius]], a famous [[Stoicism|Stoic philosopher]]. For a period he enjoyed success, defeating and killing the Roman consul [[Publius Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus|P. Licinius Crassus]] and his army, but he was defeated in 129 BC by the consul [[Marcus Perperna (consul 130 BC)|M. Perperna]]. The Attalid kingdom was divided between Rome, [[Pontus (kingdom)|Pontus]], and [[Cappadocia (kingdom)|Cappadocia]], with the bulk of its territory becoming the new [[Roman province]] of [[Asia (Roman province)|Asia]]. The city itself was declared free and served briefly as capital of the province, before this distinction was transferred to [[Ephesus]].

===Roman period===
[[File:Mithridates VI Louvre.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Mithridates VI Eupator|Mithridates VI]], portrait in the [[Louvre]]]]
In 88 BC, [[Mithridates VI Eupator]] made Pergamon his headquarters in his [[First Mithridatic War|first war]] against Rome, in which he was defeated. The victorious Romans deprived Pergamon of all its benefits and of its status as a free city. Henceforth the city was required to pay tribute and accommodate and supply Roman troops, and the property of many of the inhabitants was confiscated. Imported Pergamene goods were among the luxuries enjoyed by [[Lucullus]]. The members of the Pergamene aristocracy, especially [[Diodorus Pasparus]] in the 70s BC, used their own possessions to maintain good relationships with Rome, by acting as donors for the development of the city. Numerous honorific inscriptions indicate Pasparus' work and his exceptional position in Pergamon at this time.<ref>On Diodorus Pasparus, see ''Altertümer von Pergamon''. 15.1, pp. 114–117.</ref>

Pergamon still remained a famous city, and was the seat of a ''[[conventus]]'' (regional assembly). Its [[neocorate]], granted by [[Augustus]], was the first manifestation of the [[Imperial cult of ancient Rome|imperial cult]] in the province of Asia. [[Pliny the Elder]] refers to the city as the most important in the province<ref>Pliny, ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Naturalis historia]]'' 5.126.</ref> and the local aristocracy continued to reach the highest circles of power in the 1st century AD, like [[Gaius Antius Aulus Julius Quadratus|Aulus Julius Quadratus]] who was [[consul]] in 94 and 105.

[[File:Kleinasien II.jpg|thumb|300px|Pergamon in the Roman province of [[Asia (Roman province)|Asia]], 90 BC]]
Yet it was only under [[Trajan]] and his successors that a comprehensive redesign and remodelling took place, with the construction of a Roman 'new city' at the base of the Acropolis. The city was the first in the province to receive a second neocorate, from Trajan in AD 113/4. [[Hadrian]] raised the city to the rank of [[metropolis]] in 123 and thereby elevated it above its local rivals, [[Ephesus]] and [[Smyrna]]. An ambitious building programme was carried out: massive temples, a stadium, a [[Roman theatre (structure)|theatre]], a huge forum and an [[Roman amphitheatre|amphitheatre]] were constructed. In addition, at the city limits the shrine to [[Asclepius]] (the god of healing) was expanded into a lavish spa. This sanctuary grew in fame and was considered one of the most famous healing centers of the Roman world.

[[File:Modell Pergamonmuseum.jpg|thumb|A model of the acropolis of Pergamon, showing the situation in the 2nd century CE]]
In the middle of the 2nd century Pergamon was one of the largest cities in the province, and had around 200,000 inhabitants. [[Galen]], the most famous physician of antiquity aside from [[Hippocrates]], was born at Pergamon and received his early training at the Asclepieion. At the beginning of the 3rd century [[Caracalla]] granted the city a third neocorate, but a decline had already set in. The economic strength of Pergamon collapsed during the [[crisis of the Third Century]], as the city was badly damaged in an earthquake in 262 and was sacked by the [[Goths]] shortly thereafter. In [[late antiquity]], it experienced a limited economic recovery.

===Byzantine period===
In AD 663/4, Pergamon was captured by raiding [[Rashidun caliphate|Arabs]] for the first time.<ref name="ODB">{{ODB|title=Pergamon|last=Foss|first=Clive|page=1628}}</ref> As a result of the ongoing Arab threat, the area of settlement retracted to the [[acropolis]], which the Emperor [[Constans II]] ({{reign|641|668}}) fortified<ref name="ODB"/> with a {{convert|6|m|ft|adj=mid|-thick|sp=us}} wall built of [[spolia]].

During the middle Byzantine period, the city was part of the [[Thracesian Theme]],<ref name="ODB"/> and from the time of [[Leo VI the Wise]] ({{reign|886|912}}) of the [[Theme of Samos]].<ref name="EI2"/> 7th-century sources attest an [[Armenians|Armenian]] community in Pergamon, probably formed of refugees from the [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]]; this community produced the emperor [[Philippicus]] ({{reign|711|713}}).<ref name="ODB"/><ref name="EI2">{{EI2|title=Bergama|last=Parry|first=V. J.|volume=1|page=1187}}</ref> In 716, Pergamon was sacked again by the armies of [[Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik]]. It was again rebuilt and refortified after the Arabs abandoned their  [[Siege of Constantinople (717)|Siege of Constantinople]] in 717–718.<ref name="ODB"/><ref name="EI2"/>

Pergamon suffered from the [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuk]] invasion of western Anatolia after the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in 1071. Attacks in 1109 and 1113 largely destroyed the city, which was only rebuilt, by Emperor [[Manuel I Komnenos]] ({{reign|1143|1180}}), around 1170. It likely became the capital of the new theme of [[Neokastra]], established by Manuel.<ref name="ODB"/><ref name="EI2"/> Under [[Isaac II Angelos]] ({{reign|1185|1195}}), the [[Metropolis of Pergamon|local see]] was promoted to a [[metropolitan bishopric]], having previously been a [[suffragan diocese]] of the [[Metropolis of Ephesus]].<ref name="EI2"/>

After the [[Sack of Constantinople]] in 1204 during the [[Fourth Crusade]], Pergamon became part of the [[Empire of Nicaea]].<ref name="EI2"/> When Emperor [[Theodore II Laskaris]] ({{reign|1254|1285}}) visited Pergamon in 1250, he was shown the house of Galen, but he saw that the theatre had been destroyed and, except for the walls which he paid some attention to, only the vaults over the Selinus seemed noteworthy to him. The monuments of the Attalids and the Romans were only plundered ruins by this time.

With the expansion of the [[Anatolian beyliks]], Pergamon was absorbed into the beylik of [[Karasids]] shortly after 1300, and then conquered by the [[Ottoman beylik]].<ref name="EI2"/> The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Sultan [[Murad III]] had two large [[alabaster]] urns transported from the ruins of Pergamon and placed on two sides of the nave in the [[Hagia Sophia]] in [[Istanbul]].<ref>E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936 - Page 526</ref>