Editing Pavia (section)

== History ==
{{see also|Timeline of Pavia}}

=== Early history ===
{{main|Ticinum}}
[[File:Josse Lieferinxe - Saint Sebastian Interceding for the Plague Stricken - Walters 371995.jpg|left|thumb|This painting by [[Josse Lieferinxe]] depicts an outbreak of the plague in seventh-century Pavia (then under the [[Lombard Kingdom]]).<ref>{{cite web |publisher= [[The Walters Art Museum]]
 |url= http://art.thewalters.org/detail/6193
 |title= Saint Sebastian Interceding for the Plague Stricken}}</ref> The Walters Art Museum.]]Dating back to pre-Roman times, the town of Pavia was said by [[Pliny the Elder]] to have been founded by the [[Laevi]] and [[Marici (Ligures)|Marici]], two [[Ligures|Ligurian]], or Celto-Ligurian, tribes, while [[Ptolemy]] attributes it to the [[Insubres]], a [[Celts|Celtic]] population. The Roman city, known as [[Ticinum]], was a municipality and an important military site (a [[castrum]]) under the [[Roman Empire]]. It most likely began as a small military camp built by the [[consul]] [[Publius Cornelius Scipio (consul 218 BC)|Publius Cornelius Scipio]] in 218 BCE to guard a wooden bridge he had built over the river Ticinum, on his way to search for [[Hannibal]], who was rumoured to have managed to lead an army over the [[Alps]] and into Italy. The forces of Rome and [[Carthage]] ran into each other soon thereafter, and the Romans suffered the first of many crushing defeats at the hands of Hannibal, with the consul himself almost losing his life. The bridge was destroyed, but the fortified camp, which at the time was the most forward Roman military outpost in the [[Po Valley]], somehow survived the long [[Second Punic War]], and gradually evolved into a garrison town.

Its importance grew with the extension of the [[Via Aemilia]] from [[Ariminum]] (Rimini) to the river [[Po (river)|Po]] (187 BCE), which it crossed at Placentia ([[Piacenza]]) and there forked, one branch going to [[Mediolanum]] ([[Milan]]) and the other to Ticinum, and thence to [[Laumellum]] where it divided once more, one branch going to [[Vercellae]] – and thence to [[Eporedia]] and [[Augusta Praetoria]] – and the other to Valentia – and thence to [[Augusta Taurinorum]] ([[Turin]]).
[[File:IMG E2796 (2).jpg|thumb|Aerial photo of the historic center of Pavia; the urban plan of the Roman age is evident.]]
The town was built on flatted ground with square blocks. The "[[Cardo|cardo Maximus]]" road corresponded to the current Strada Nuova up to the Roman bridge while the "[[Decumanus Maximus|decumanus]]" road corresponded to corso Cavour-corso Mazzini. Under most of the streets of the historic center there are still the brick ducts of the Roman sewer system which continued to function throughout the Middle Ages and the modern age without interruption, until about 1970.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.paviaedintorni.it/temi/arteearchitettura_file/artearchitettura_varie_file/descrizioni_fognatureromaneapavia.htm|title=Rete fognaria nel sottosuolo di Pavia|work=Pavia e dintorni| access-date=5 August 2022}}</ref> [[File:Fogne.jpg|left|thumb|One of the sections of the Roman sewer that passes under the streets of the historic center of Pavia]]Pavia was important as a Military site ([[Battle of Pavia (271)|near the city]], in 271, the emperor [[Aurelian]] defeated the [[Juthungi]]) because of the easy access to water communications (through the rivers [[Ticino (river)|Ticino]] and [[Po (river)|Po]]) up to the [[Adriatic Sea]] and because of its defence structures.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.monasteriimperialipavia.it/pavia-citta-regia/?lang=en|title=Pavia Royal town|work=Monasteri Imperiali Pavia|access-date=29 July 2022}}</ref>
In 325 [[Martin of Tours]] came to Pavia as a child following his father, a Roman officer.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.monasteriimperialipavia.it/pavia-citta-regia/?lang=en|title=Pavia Royal town|work=Monasteri Imperiali Pavia|access-date=29 July 2022}}</ref> Pavia was the seat of an important Roman mint between 273 and 326.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aeternitas-numismatics.com/single-post/roman-imperial-mints-ticinum|title=Knowing the Roman imperial mints: IV- Ticinum|work=Aeternitas Numismatics|date=6 May 2017 |access-date=29 July 2022}}</ref>
The reign of [[Romulus Augustulus]] (r. 475–476), the last emperor of the [[Western Roman Empire]] ended at Pavia in 476 CE, and Roman rule thereby ceased in Italy.<ref>{{cite book|last=Thompson|title=Romans and Barbarians|pages=[https://archive.org/details/romansbarbarians00thom/page/61 61–63]}}</ref> Romulus Augustulus, while considered the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, was actually a usurper of the imperial [[throne]]; his father [[Flavius Orestes]] dethroned the previous emperor, [[Julius Nepos]], and raised the young Romulus Augustulus to the imperial throne at [[Ravenna]] in 475.<ref>{{cite book|last=Thompson|title=Romans and Barbarians|pages=61–63}}</ref> Though being the emperor, Romulus Augustulus was simply the mouthpiece for his father Orestes, who was the person who actually exercised power and governed Italy during Romulus Augustulus' short reign.<ref>{{cite book|last=Thompson |title=Romans and Barbarians|pages=61–63}}</ref> Ten months after Romulus Augustulus's reign began, Orestes's soldiers under the command of one of his officers named [[Odoacer]], rebelled and killed Orestes in the city of Pavia in 476.<ref>{{cite book|last=Thompson|title=Romans and Barbarians|pages=64}}</ref> The rioting that took place as part of Odoacer's uprising against Orestes sparked fires that burnt much of Pavia to the point that Odoacer, as the new king of Italy, had to suspend the [[taxes]] for the city for five years so that it could finance its recovery.<ref>{{cite book|last=Thompson|title=Romans and Barbarians|pages=64}}</ref> Without his father, Romulus Augustulus was powerless. Instead of killing Romulus Augustulus, Odoacer pensioned him off at 6,000 solidi a year before declaring the end of the Western Roman Empire and himself king of the new Kingdom of Italy.<ref>{{cite book|last=Thompson |title=Romans and Barbarians|pages=64}}</ref>

Odoacer's reign as king of Italy did not last long, because in 488 the [[Ostrogothic]] peoples led by their [[king]] [[Theodoric the Great|Theoderic]] invaded Italy and waged war against Odoacer.<ref>{{cite book|last=Moorhead |title=Theoderic |pages=19}}</ref> After fighting for 5 years, Theoderic defeated Odoacer and on March 15, 493, assassinated Odoacer at a banquet meant to negotiate a peace between the two rulers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Moorhead|title=Theoderic |pages=26}}</ref> With the establishment of the Ostrogoth kingdom based in northern Italy, Theoderic began his vast program of public building. Pavia was among several cities that Theodoric chose to restore and expand.<ref>{{cite book|last=Moorhead|title=Theoderic|pages=42}}</ref> He began the construction of the vast palace complex that would eventually become the residence of Lombard monarchs several decades later.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wickham|title=Early Medieval Italy|pages=38}}</ref> Theoderic also commissioned the building of the Roman-styled [[amphitheatre]] and bath complex in Pavia;<ref>{{cite book|last=Moorhead|title=Theoderic|pages=42}}</ref> in the seventh century these would be among the few still functioning bath complexes in Europe outside of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Wickham|title=Early Medieval Italy|pages=38}}</ref> Near the end of Theoderic's reign the Christian [[philosopher]] [[Boethius]] was imprisoned in one of Pavia's churches from 522 to 525 before his execution for treason.<ref>{{cite book|last=Moorhead |title=Theoderic|pages=219–222}}</ref> It was during Boethius's captivity in Pavia that he wrote his seminal work the ''Consolation of Philosophy''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Moorhead|title=Theoderic|pages=223–225}}</ref>
[[File:Musei civici6.jpg|thumb|left|[[Ostrogoths|Ostrogothic]] belt buckle, [[Pavia Civic Museums|Civic Museums]]]]
Pavia played an important role in the war between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Ostrogoths that began in 535.<ref>{{cite book|last=Thompson|title=Romans and Barbarians|pages=95}}</ref> After the Eastern Roman general [[Belisarius]]'s victory over the Ostrogothic leader [[Wittigis]] in 540 and the loss of most of the Ostrogoth lands in Italy, Pavia was among the last centres of Ostrogothic resistance that continued the war and opposed Eastern Roman rule.<ref>{{cite book|last=Thompson|title=Romans and Barbarians|pages=95–96}}</ref> After the capitulation of the Ostrogothic leadership in 540 more than a thousand men remained garrisoned in Pavia and [[Verona]] dedicated to opposing Eastern Roman rule.<ref>{{cite book|last=Thompson|title=Romans and Barbarians|pages=96}}</ref> Since 540 Pavia became the permanent capital of the [[Ostrogothic Kingdom]], stable site of the court and the royal treasury.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.monasteriimperialipavia.it/pavia-citta-regia/?lang=en|title=Pavia Royal town|work=Monasteri Imperiali Pavia|access-date=29 July 2022}}</ref> The resilience of Ostrogoth strongholds like Pavia against invading forces allowed pockets of Ostrogothic rule to limp along until finally being defeated in 561.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wickham|title=Early Medieval Italy|pages=ix}}</ref>
[[File:Ponte Coperto al tramonto con i suoi riflessi.jpg|thumb|[[Ponte Coperto]]]]

Pavia and the peninsula of Italy did not remain long under the rule of the Eastern Roman Empire, for in 568 CE a new people invaded Italy: the [[Lombards]] (otherwise called the Longobards).<ref>{{cite book|last=Christie|title=The Lombards|page=xxii}}</ref> In their invasion of Italy in 568, the Lombards were led by their king [[Alboin]] (r. 560–572), who would become the first Lombard king of Italy.<ref>{{cite book|last=Christie|title=The Lombards|page=xxv }}</ref> Alboin captured much of northern Italy in 568 but his progress was halted in 569 by the fortified city of Pavia.<ref>{{cite book|last=Christie |title=The Lombards|pages=79}}</ref> [[Paul the Deacon]]'s History of the Lombards written more than a hundred years after the Siege of Ticinum provides one of the few records of this period: "The city of Ticinum (Pavia) at this time held out bravely, withstanding a siege more than three years, while the army of the Langobards remained close at hand on the western side. Meanwhile, Alboin, after driving out the soldiers, took possession of everything as far as Tuscany except Rome and [[Ravenna]] and some other fortified places which were situated on the shore of the sea."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Paul the Deacon |title=History of the Lombards|year=2003|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |location=Philadelphia |pages=80|author2=William Dudley Foulke |editor=Edward Peters}}</ref> The Siege of Ticinum finally ended with the Lombards capturing the city of Pavia in 572.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hodgkin|first=Thomas|title=Italy and Her Invaders 553 Volume V The Lombard Invasion |year=1895|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford |pages=162–163}}</ref> Pavia's strategic location and the Ostrogoth palaces located within it would make Pavia by the 620s the main capital of the Lombards' Kingdom of Pavia<ref>{{cite book|last=Arnaldi |title=Italy and Its Invaders|pages=31}}</ref> and the main residence for the Lombard rulers.<ref>{{cite book|last=Christie|title=The Lombards|pages=147}}</ref>

===Lombard capital===
Under Lombard rule many monasteries, nunneries, and churches were built at Pavia by the devout Christian Lombard monarchs. Even though the first Lombard kings were [[Arianism|Arian]] Christians, sources from the period such as [[Paul the Deacon]] have recorded that the Arian Lombards were very tolerant of their Catholic subjects' faith and that up to the 690s Arian and Catholic cathedrals coexisted in Pavia.<ref>{{cite book|last=Christie|title=The Lombards|pages=188}}</ref> Lombard kings, queens, and nobles would engage in building churches, monasteries, and nunneries as a method to demonstrate their piety and their wealth by extravagantly decorating these structures which in many cases would become the site of that person's tomb, as in the case of [[Grimoald, King of the Lombards|Grimoald]] (r. 662–671) who built San Ambrogio in Pavia and buried there after his death in 671.<ref>{{cite book|last=Christie|title=The Lombards|pages=100}}</ref> [[File:Cunip.jpg|left|thumb|Tombstones of King [[Cunipert]], [[Pavia Civic Museums|Civic Museums]]]] [[Aripert I]] had the [[basilica of Santissimo Salvatore]] built in 657, which became the [[mausoleum]] of the kings of the [[Bavarian dynasty]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.academia.edu/958478|title= The politics of memory of the Lombard monarchy in Pavia, the kingdom's capital|work= Materializing Memory. Archaeological material culture and the semantics of the past|access-date=29 July 2022|last1= Majocchi|first1= Piero}}</ref> [[Perctarit]] (r. 661–662, 672–688) and his son [[Cunipert|Cunicpert]] (r.679–700) built a nunnery and a church at Pavia during their reigns.<ref>{{cite book|last=Christie|title=The Lombards|pages=xxv, 101}}</ref> Lombard churches were sometimes named after those who commissioned their construction, such as San Maria Theodota in Pavia.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wickham|title=Early Medieval Italy|pages=84}}</ref> The monastery of San Michele alla Pusterla located at Pavia was the royal monastery of the Lombard kings.<ref>{{cite book|last=Christie|title=The Lombards|pages=200}}</ref>
[[File:0311 - Pavia - S. Pietro - Facciata - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto, Oct 17 2009.jpg|thumb|[[San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro|Basilica of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro]]]]

[[San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro|church San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro]] was commissioned by a Lombard king in Pavia, [[Liutprand, King of the Lombards|Liutprand]] (r. 712–744)<ref>{{cite book |last=Christie|title=The Lombards|pages=xxv}}</ref> and it would become the site of his tomb as well as two other Christian figures.{{sfnp|Dale|2001}} In building San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro the unit of measurement used by the builders was the length of Liutprand's royal foot.<ref>{{cite book|last=Scott|first=Leader|title=The Cathedral Builders The Story of a Great Masonic Guild |url=https://archive.org/details/cathedralbuilde00scotgoog|year=1899 |publisher=S. Low, Marston and Company |location=London|pages=50}}</ref> The first important Christian figure interred at San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro was the previously mentioned philosopher Boethius, author of ''The Consolation of Philosophy'', who is located in the cathedral's crypt.{{sfnp|Dale|2001|p=43}} The third and largest tomb of the three located in San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro contains the remains of [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine of Hippo]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Arnaldi|title=Italy and Its Invaders|pages=39–40}}</ref> St. Augustine is the early fifth-century Christian writer from Roman North Africa whose works such as ''On Christian Doctrine'' revolutionized the way in which the Christian scripture is interpreted and understood.<ref>{{cite book|last=Geary |first=Patrick J.|title=Readings in Medieval History Vol. 1|year=2010|publisher=University of Toronto Press |location=Toronto|pages=28–45}}</ref> On October 1, 1695, artisans working in San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro rediscovered St. Augustine's remains after lifting up some of the paving stones that compose the cathedral's floor.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Weinstein |first=Donald|author-link=Donald Weinstein|title=Review of ''St. Augustine's Bones: A Microhistory'', by Harold Samuel Stone|journal=The American Historical Review|date=October 2003 |volume=108|issue=4|pages=1242–1243 |doi=10.1086/529942 |url=https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article-abstract/108/4/1242/73511}}</ref> Liutprand was a very devout Christian and like many of the Lombard kings was zealous about collecting relics of saints.<ref>{{cite book |last=Arnaldi|title=Italy and Its Invaders|pages=39}}</ref> Liutprand paid a great deal to have the relics removed from [[Cagliari]] and brought to Pavia so that they would be out of the reach and safe from the Saracens on [[Sardinia]] where St. Augustine's remains had been resting.<ref>{{cite book|last=Arnaldi |title=Italy and Its Invaders|pages=39–40}}</ref> Very little of Liutprand's original church of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro consecrated by Pope Zacharias in 743 remains today.<ref>{{cite book|last=Scott|title=The Cathedral Builders|pages=50}}</ref> Originally the roof of its apse was decorated with mosaics, making San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro the first instance of mosaics being used to decorate a Lombard church.<ref>{{cite book|last=Scott|title=The Cathedral Builders|pages=50}}</ref> It is now a modern church with the only significant link to its antiquity being its round apse.<ref>{{cite book |last=Scott|title=The Cathedral Builders|pages=50}}</ref> The Lombards built their churches in a very Romanesque style, with the best example of Lombard churches from the period of Lombardic rule being the [[San Michele Maggiore, Pavia|Basilica of San Michele]] still intact at Pavia.<ref>{{cite book|last=Scott|title=The Cathedral Builders |pages=50–51}}</ref>
[[File:Interno della cripta.jpg|left|thumb|[[Crypt of Sant'Eusebio]]]]
As the kingdom's capital, Pavia in the late seventh century also became one of the central locations of the Lombards' efforts to mint their own coinage.<ref>{{cite book|last=Christie|title=The Lombards|pages=142}}</ref> The bust of the Lombard king would have been etched on the coins as a symbolic gesture so that those who used the coins, mostly Lombard nobles, would understand that king had the ultimate power and control of wealth in the Kingdom of Pavia.<ref>{{cite book|last=Christie|title=The Lombards|pages=142}}</ref> The role of the capital implies the residence of the royal court, the presence of the central administrative structure of the kingdom, and the city's pre-eminence over the other urban centres in the military organization of the seasonal wars.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.academia.edu/958478|title= The politics of memory of the Lombard monarchy in Pavia, the kingdom's capital|work= Materializing Memory. Archaeological material culture and the semantics of the past|access-date=29 July 2022|last1= Majocchi|first1= Piero}}</ref> The city of Pavia played a key role in the war between the Lombard Kingdom of Pavia and the Franks led by Charlemagne. In 773, Charlemagne king of the Franks declared war and invaded across the Alps into northern Italy defeating the Lombard army commanded by king [[Desiderius]] (r. 757–774).<ref>{{cite book|last=Wickham|title=Early Medieval Italy|pages=46–47}}</ref> Between the autumn of 773 and June of 774<ref>{{cite book|last=Wickham|title=Early Medieval Italy|pages=47}}</ref> Charlemagne laid [[Siege of Pavia (773–774)|siege to Pavia]] first and then Verona, capturing the seat of Lombard power and quickly crushing any resistance from the northern Lombard fortified cities.<ref>{{cite book|last=Christie|title=The Lombards|pages=106}}</ref> Pavia had been the official capital of the Lombards since the 620s,<ref>{{cite book|last=Wickham|title=Early Medieval Italy|pages=38}}</ref> but it was also the place upon where the Lombard Kingdom in Italy ended. Upon entering Pavia in triumph, Charlemagne crowned himself king of the lands of the former Kingdom of Pavia.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wickham|title=Early Medieval Italy|pages=47}}</ref> The Lombard kingdom and its northern territories from then onwards were a sub-kingdom of the Frankish Empire, while the Lombard southern [[duchy of Benevento]] persisted for several centuries longer with relative independence and autonomy.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wickham|title=Early Medieval Italy|pages=48–49}}</ref>

There is little information, but, again in the eighth century, a Jewish community was also present in Pavia: [[Alcuin|Alcuin of York]] recalls a religious disputation that took place in the city between 750 and 766 between the Jew Julius of Pavia and the Christian Peter of Pisa.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pavia |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/pavia |website=jewishvirtuallibrary.org |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=2 October 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Pavia |url=https://www7.tau.ac.il/omeka/italjuda/items/show/882 |website=7.tau.ac.il/omeka/italjuda |publisher=Italia Judaica |access-date=2 October 2022}}</ref>

===Medieval history===
Emperor [[Lothair I]], king of Italy from 822 to 850, paid attention to schools when in 825 he issued his [[capitulary]] by means of which he prescribed that students from many towns of north Italy had to attend the lectures in the school of Pavia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.monasteriimperialipavia.it/pavia-citta-regia/?lang=en|title=Pavia Royal town|work=Monasteri Imperiali Pavia|access-date=29 July 2022}}</ref> [[File:Musei civici pavia5.jpg|thumb|Capital with battle scene, 12th century, [[Pavia Civic Museums|Civic Museums]]]] In 924, the Hungarians, led by the deposed Lombard king, [[Berengar I of Italy|Berengar I]], besieged but did not conquer the city.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Golinelli |first1=Pavia |title=Adelaide regina Santa d'Europa |date=2001 |publisher=Editoriale Jaca Book |location=Milano |isbn=9788816435117 |pages=30 |url=https://www.google.it/books/edition/Adelaide/YQZtlHhOE5kC?hl=it&gbpv=1&dq=golinelli+adelaide&printsec=frontcover |language=it}}</ref> With [[Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto II]] Pavia become the stable site of the court, first with queen [[Adelaide of Italy]] and then with the wife of Otto II [[Theophanu]]m.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.monasteriimperialipavia.it/pavia-citta-regia/?lang=en|title=Pavia Royal town|work=Monasteri Imperiali Pavia|access-date=29 July 2022}}</ref> During the Ottonian period Pavia enjoyed a period of well-being and development. The ancient Lombard capital distinguished itself from the other cities of the Po Valley for its fundamental function as a crossroads of important trade, both in foodstuffs and in luxury items. Commercial traffic was favored above all by the waterways used by the emperor for his travels: from Ticino the Po was easily reached, a direct axis with the Adriatic Sea and maritime traffic. Furthermore, with the advent of the Ottoni, Milan again lost importance in favor of Pavia, whose pre-eminence was sanctioned, among other things, by the minting of the Pavia mint.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pavia: Vestigia di una Civitas altomedievale |url=https://www.academia.edu/4311218 |website=academia.edu |publisher=UNIVERSITA' DEGLI STUDI DI MILANO |access-date=3 October 2022 |last1=Brandolini |first1=Filippo }}</ref> The importance of the city in those centuries is also highlighted by the account of the Arab geographer Ibrāhīm al-Turtuši, who traveled to central-western Europe between 960 and 965 and visited Verona, Rocca di Garda and Pavia, which he defined the main city of Longobardia, very populous, rich in merchants and entirely built, unlike other centers in the region, in stone, brick and lime. In Pavia, Ibrāhīm al-Turtuši, was very impressed by the equestrian statue of [[Regisole]], which he places near one of the doors of the Royal palace and by the 300 jurists working inside the palace.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mandalà |first1=Giuseppe |title=La Longobardia, i Longobardi e Pavia nei geografi arabo-islamici del Medioevo |language=it|journal=Aevum |date=2014 |volume=88 |pages=356–361 |url=https://www.academia.edu/8463586 |access-date=3 October 2022}}</ref> Also at the turn of the tenth and eleventh centuries, the city was the birthplace of [[Liutprand of Cremona]], bishop, chronicler and diplomat in the service of [[Berengar II of Italy|Berengar II]] first and then of [[Otto the Great|Otto I]] and [[Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto II]] and of [[Lanfranc]], a close collaborator of [[William the Conqueror]] and, after the [[Norman Conquest|Norman conquest]] of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom, reorganizer of the English church. Pavia remained the capital of the [[Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)|Italian Kingdom]] and the centre of royal coronations until the diminution of imperial authority there in the 12th century. In 1004, [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor Henry II]] bloodily suppressed a revolt of the citizens of Pavia, who disputed his recent coronation as [[King of Italy]].
[[File:Pietre sulle quali veniva posto il trono durante le incoronazioni (4x3).jpg|thumb|left|Basilica of [[San Michele Maggiore, Pavia|San Michele Maggiore]], the five stones, already mentioned in the Honorantiae civitatis Papiae (about 1020), above which the throne was placed during coronations]]
In 1018, Pope [[Pope Benedict VIII|Benedict VIII]] convened a council in Pavia, at which the condemnation of [[simony]] and of clerical concubinage was reaffirmed. A new council, also convened by Pope Benedict VIII and Emperor [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry II]], was held in Pavia in 1022 and established severe measures to suppress [[Nicolaism|Nicolaitism]] and simony.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana |title=Pavia |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/pavia/ |website=treccani.it |publisher=Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana |access-date=17 May 2025}}</ref>
In 1037, Emperor [[Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor|Conrad II]], together with the army of Pavia, laid siege to Milan, although the siege was later lifted, and the devastation of the Milanese fields continued until 1039. The rivalry between Pavia and Milan turned into a war in 1056, which continued for a long time with changing fortunes (Battle of Campomorto, 1061), and Pavia called upon the emperor for assistance.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Majocchi |first1=Piero |editor1-last=Piero Majocchi |editor1-link=Maria Cristina La Rocca |title=Urban Identities in Northern Italy (800-1100 ca.) |date=2015 |publisher=Brepols |location=Turnhout |isbn=978-2-503-56547-7 |pages=103-148 |url=https://www.academia.edu/19930734/Piero_Majocchi_Lesercito_del_re_e_le_citt%C3%A0_organizzazione_militare_degli_eserciti_urbani_in_Italia_settentrionale_VIII_XI_sec_in_Urban_Identities_in_Northern_Italy_800_1100_ca_eds_by_Piero_Majocchi_e_Cristina_La_Rocca_Brepols_2015_pp_103_148 |language=it |chapter=Piero Majocchi, L'esercito del re e le città: organizzazione militare degli eserciti urbani in Italia settentrionale (VIII-XI sec.)}}</ref>
In 1076, during the conflicts between Emperor [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry IV]] and Pope [[Pope Gregory VII|Gregory VII]], the imperial-loyal bishops organized a council in Pavia, at which Pope Gregory VII was excommunicated.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana |title=Pavia |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/pavia/ |website=treccani.it |publisher=Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana |access-date=17 May 2025}}</ref>
In the 12th century, Pavia acquired the status of a self-governing [[Medieval commune|commune]]. In the political division between [[Guelphs and Ghibellines]] that characterized the Italian Middle Ages, Pavia was traditionally Ghibelline, a position that was as much supported by the rivalry with [[Milan]] as it was a mark of the defiance of the Emperor that led the [[Lombard League]] against the emperor [[Frederick Barbarossa]], who was attempting to reassert long-dormant Imperial influence over Italy. Frederick I celebrated two coronations in Pavia (1155 and 1162) in the basilica of [[San Michele Maggiore, Pavia|San Michele Maggiore]] and resieded in a new imperial palace near the royal [[Basilica of Santissimo Salvatore|monastery of St. Salvatore]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.academia.edu/958478|title= The politics of memory of the Lombard monarchy in Pavia, the kingdom's capital|work= Materializing Memory. Archaeological material culture and the semantics of the past|access-date=29 July 2022|last1= Majocchi|first1= Piero}}</ref>

In the following centuries Pavia was an important and active town. Pavia supported the emperor [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] against the [[Lombard League]] and the Pavese army took part in numerous operations in the service of the emperor and participated in the [[battle of Cortenuova]] in 1237.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nam-sism.org/Articoli/NAM%20510822%20Fascicolo%20N.%205%20-%20FRANKE%20Comparing%20Staufen%20Strategy.pdf|title=From Defeat to Victory in Northern Italy: Comparing Staufen Strategy and Operations at Legnano and Cortenuova, 1176-1237|publisher=Nuova Antologia Militare|access-date=29 July 2022}}</ref>
[[File:Pvtorri.jpg|thumb|upright| Some of the [[Towers of Pavia]], 11th–13th century]]
Under the [[Treaty of Pavia (1329)|Treaty of Pavia]], Emperor [[Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Louis IV]] granted during his stay in Italy the [[Electorate of the Palatinate]] to his brother Duke [[Rudolf I, Duke of Bavaria|Rudolph's]] descendants. Pavia held out against the domination of [[Milan]], finally yielding to the [[Visconti of Milan|Visconti]] family, rulers of that city in 1359 after a difficult siege;<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.academia.edu/21465034 |title="Come i Visconti asediaro Pavia". Assedi e operazioni militari intorno a Pavia dal 1356 al 1359|work=Reti Medievali Rivista|access-date=2 August 2022 |last1=Romanoni |first1=Fabio }}</ref> under the Visconti Pavia became an intellectual and artistic centre, being the seat from 1361 of the [[University of Pavia]] founded around the nucleus of the old school of law, which attracted students from many countries. During the regency of [[Galeazzo II Visconti|Galeazzo II]] and [[Gian Galeazzo Visconti|Gian Galeazzo]] the memory of the capital's role and the Lombard traditions of Pavia jointly entered the "propaganda" of the new masters of Pavia: Galeazzo II moved his court from Milan to Pavia and between 1361 and 1365 Galeazzo II built a large palace ([[Visconti Castle (Pavia)|Visconti castle]]) with a major Park ([[Visconti Park]]), which became the official residence of the dynasty.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.academia.edu/958478|title= The politics of memory of the Lombard monarchy in Pavia, the kingdom's capital|work= Materializing Memory. Archaeological material culture and the semantics of the past|access-date=29 July 2022|last1= Majocchi|first1= Piero}}</ref> In 1396 Gian Galeazzo commissioned the building of the [[Certosa di Pavia|Certosa]], built at the end of the Visconti Park, which connected the Certosa to the castle of Pavia. The church, the last edifice of the complex to be built, was to be the family [[mausoleum]] of the Visconti.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.certosadipavia.it/cathedral/|title=Cathedral (English Version)|work=Certosa di Pavia|access-date=29 July 2022}}</ref> In 1389, by the will of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, some families of German Jews settled in Pavia, mainly active in financial activities.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pavia |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/pavia |website=jewishvirtuallibrary.org |publisher=jewish virtual library |access-date=3 October 2022}}</ref> The Jewish community of Pavia grew in the 15th century, when Elijah ben Shabbetai, personal doctor of Filippo Maria Visconti and professor at the University of Pavia and, above all, [[Joseph Colon Trabotto]], who was a 15th-century rabbi who is considered Italy's foremost [[Judaism|Judaic]] scholar and [[Talmud]]ist of his era, and in the same university a Hebrew course was activated in 1490.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pavia |url=https://www7.tau.ac.il/omeka/italjuda/items/show/882 |website=7.tau.ac.il/omeka |publisher=Italia Judaica |access-date=3 October 2022}}</ref> Also in the fifteenth century, by the will of the Dukes of Milan, the University of Pavia experienced a phase of great development: it began to attract students from both Italy and other European countries and taught teachers of great fame, such as [[Baldus de Ubaldis|Baldo degli Ubaldi]], [[Lorenzo Valla]] or [[Giasone del Maino]].

=== Early modern ===

The [[Battle of Pavia]] (1525) marked a watershed in the city's fortunes, since by that time, the former schism between the supporters of the Pope and those of the Holy Roman Emperor had shifted to one between a French party (allied with the Pope) and a party supporting the Emperor and King of Spain [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]]. Thus, during the [[House of Valois|Valois]]-[[Habsburg]] [[Italian Wars]], Pavia was naturally on the Imperial (and Spanish) side. The defeat and capture of King [[Francis I of France|Francis&nbsp;I]] of [[Kingdom of France|France]] during the battle ushered in a period of [[Habsburg Spain|Spanish]] occupation. In the same years, he studied at the [[Gerolamo Cardano|Girolamo Cardano]] University of Pavia, while, probably in 1511, [[Leonardo da Vinci]] studied anatomy together with [[Marcantonio della Torre]], professor of anatomy at the university.<ref>{{cite web |title=DALLA TORRE, Marco Antonio |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/dalla-torre-marco-antonio_(Dizionario-Biografico) |website=www.treccani.it |publisher=Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani Treccani |access-date=12 October 2022}}</ref> In 1597, by the will of [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] of Spain, the Jewish community of Pavia had to abandon the city.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pavia |url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/11956-pavia |website=jewishencyclopedia.com |publisher=Jewish Encyclopedia |access-date=3 October 2022}}</ref>
[[File:Cattura di Francesco I nella battaglia di Pavia.jpg|left|thumb|The capture of [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] during the [[battle of Pavia]], detail, one of a [[tapestry]] suite woven at [[Brussels]] ''c'' 1528–31 after [[cartoon]]s by [[Bernard van Orley]]]]
During the [[Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)|Franco-Spanish war]], Pavia was besieged from 24 July to 14 September 1655 by a large French, Savoyard and [[Duchy of Modena and Reggio|Estense]] army commanded by [[Thomas Francis, Prince of Carignano|Thomas Francis, prince of Carignano]], but the besiegers were unable to conquer the city.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://militarymaps.rct.uk/franco-spanish-war-1635-59/siege-of-pavia-1655-fortificatione-et-assedio-di-pavia|title=Siege of Pavia 1655|work=Royal Collection Trust|access-date=7 August 2022}}</ref> The Spanish period ended in 1706, when Pavia was occupied, after a short siege, by the [[Holy Roman Empire|Austrians]] led by [[Wirich Philipp von Daun]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Falkner |first1=James |title=Prince Eugene of Savoy. A genius for war against Louis XIV and the Ottoman empire |date=2022 |publisher=Pen & Sword |location=Yorkshire |isbn=978-1526753533 |page=96}}</ref> during the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] and the city remained Austrian until 1796, when it was occupied by the French army under [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]. During this Austrian period the university was greatly supported by [[Maria Theresa]] of Austria and oversaw a culturally rich period due to the presence of leading scientists and humanists like [[Ugo Foscolo]], [[Alessandro Volta]], [[Lazzaro Spallanzani]], and [[Camillo Golgi]], among others. In 1796, after the [[Jacobin]]s [[Iconoclasm|demolished]] [[Regisole]] (a bronze classical equestrian monument), the inhabitants of Pavia revolted against the French and the revolt was quelled by [[Napoleon]] after a furious urban fight.<ref>{{cite book |last1=De Paoli |first1=Gianfranco E. |title=Il triennio cisalpino a Pavia e i fermenti risorgimentali dell'età napoleonica: aspetti inediti. Atti del convegno regionale del 15 giugno e 14 settembre 1996 |date=1997 |publisher=Cardano |location=Pavia |isbn=8873580939 |pages=19–24 |language=it |chapter=Una nuova analisi della rivolta contadina a Pavia e della repressione francese}}</ref>
[[File:Pila di volta.jpg|thumb|[[Voltaic pile]], [[University History Museum, University of Pavia|University History Museum of the University of Pavia]]]]

=== Modern History ===
In 1814, it again came under Austrian administration. In 1818 the works on the [[Naviglio Pavese]] were completed: the canal, conceived as a waterway between Milan, Pavia and Ticino and as an irrigation canal, contributed to the development of the city, so much so that a few years after its construction, in 1821, Borgo Calvenzano was built behind the [[Visconti Castle (Pavia)|Visconti Castle]], a long series of arcaded buildings where there were warehouses, taverns, shipping and customs offices, hotels, stables, all in support of inland navigation. In 1820 the first steamships began to operate in the Pavia dock and, between 1854 and 1859, the [[Österreichischer Lloyd]] organized a regular navigation line, again using steamships, between Pavia, [[Venice]] and [[Trieste]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cherini.eu/pdf/ponav.pdf|title=LA NAVIGAZIONE SUL FIUME PO E IL CONTRIBUTO DEL LLOYD AUSTRIACO|work=Associazione Marinara «Aldebaran» Trieste |access-date=21 August 2022}}</ref> With the [[Second War of Italian Independence]] (1859) and the [[unification of Italy]] one year later, Pavia passed, together with the rest of Lombardy, to the [[Kingdom of Italy]]. In 1894 [[Albert Einstein]]'s father moved to Pavia to start a business supplying electrical materials, the Einstein. The Einsteins lived in the city in the same building ([[Palazzo Cornazzani]]) where [[Ugo Foscolo]] and [[Ada Negri]] had lived. The young Albert came to the family several times between 1895 and 1896. During his time in Italy he wrote a short essay with the title "On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://museoperlastoria.unipv.it/en/albert-einstein-2/ |title=Einstein, Albert|work=Museo per la Storia dell'Università|access-date=29 July 2022}}</ref>
In 1943 Pavia was occupied by the German army. In September 1944, the US air forces carried out several bombings on the city with the aim of destroying the three bridges over the Ticino, strategic for supplying men. Weapons and provisions the German units engaged along the [[Gothic Line|Gothic line]]. These operations led to the destruction of the [[Ponte Coperto]] and resulted in the deaths of 119 civilians.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gracpiacenza.com/bombe_su_pavia.html|title=Tre ponti a Pavia, le incursioni aeree del settembre 1944 e la distruzione del Ponte Vecchio di Pavia|work=Gruppo Ricercatori Aerei Caduti Piacenza|access-date=21 August 2022}}</ref> [[File:Confluente di Pavia, 1859 circa.jpg|left|thumb|The port at the confluence of the [[Naviglio Pavese]] in [[Ticino (river)|Ticino]] with the steamship Countess Clementine, around 1859, [[Pavia Civic Museums]]]]Allied troops entered the city on April 30, 1945. At the [[1946 Italian institutional referendum|institutional referendum of 2 June 1946]] Pavia assigned 67.1% of the votes to the Republic, while the monarchy obtained only 38.2%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://elezionistorico.interno.gov.it/index.php?tpel=F&dtel=02/06/1946&tpa=I&tpe=C&lev0=0&levsut0=0&lev1=4&levsut1=1&lev2=57&levsut2=2&lev3=1070&levsut3=3&ne1=4&ne2=57&ne3=571070&es0=S&es1=S&es2=S&es3=N&ms=S|title=Referendum 02/06/1946 Area ITALIA Circoscrizione MILANO-PAVIA Provincia PAVIA Comune PAVIA|language=it|work=Elezioni storico Interno Gov.it|access-date=21 August 2022}}</ref>

=== Symbols ===
[[File:Stendardo 2 di Massimiliano Sforza, conte di Pavia.jpg|right|thumb|Coat of Arms of the county of Pavia under the Visconti Dynasty]]
The symbols of Pavia are the coat of arms, the banner and the seal, as reported in the municipal statute. The banner used by the modern city of Pavia faithfully reproduces the one used by the municipality of Pavia at least since the 13th century: a red banner with a white cross. This symbol, probably derived from blutfahne, the original flag of the emperor of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], had a clear political meaning: to underline Pavia's belonging to the [[Guelphs and Ghibellines|Ghibelline]] faction. The coat of arms of the municipality also depicts the cross which, starting from the end of the 16th century, began to be represented in an oval shape and within a rich frame, on top of which there is a mask with a crown count and often flanked by two angels holding the shield and the letters CO-PP (Comunitas Papie).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.araldicacivica.it/comune/pavia/|title=Città di Pavia|work=Araldica Civica|access-date=4 August 2022}}</ref>
The seal of the municipality depicts the [[Regisole]], an ancient late antique bronze equestrian statue originally placed inside the Royal Palace and, probably in the 11th century, placed in the [[Pavia Cathedral|cathedral]] square. The statue was pulled down by the [[Jacobin]]s in 1796.