Editing Parliamentary system (section)

==Characteristics==
{{More citations needed section|date=January 2016}}
{{Further|Parliamentary procedure}}
A parliamentary system may be either [[bicameralism|bicameral]], with two [[chambers of parliament]] (or houses) or [[unicameralism|unicameral]], with just one parliamentary chamber. A bicameral parliament usually consists of a directly elected [[lower house]] with the power to determine the executive government, and an [[upper house]] which may be appointed or elected through a different mechanism from the lower house.

A 2019 peer-reviewed [[Meta-analysis|meta-analysis]] based on 1,037 regressions in 46 studies finds that presidential systems generally seem to favor revenue cuts, while parliamentary systems would rely more on fiscal expansion characterized by a higher level of spending before an election.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cazals|first1=A.  |last2=Mandon |first2=P. |year=2019 |title=Political Budget Cycles: Manipulation by Leaders versus Manipulation by Researchers? Evidence from a Meta-Regression Analysis. |journal=[[Journal of Economic Surveys]] |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=274–308 |doi=10.1111/joes.12263  |s2cid=158322229 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/joes.12263}}</ref>

===Types===
Scholars of democracy such as [[Arend Lijphart]] distinguish two types of parliamentary democracies: the Westminster and Consensus systems.<ref>{{cite book| last=Lijphart |first=Arend |year=1999 |title=Patterns of democracy |location=New Haven |publisher=Yale University Press}}</ref>

====Westminster system====
[[File:Houses.of.parliament.overall.arp.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|The [[Palace of Westminster]] in [[London]], United Kingdom. The [[Westminster system]] originates from the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British Houses of Parliament]].]]

* The [[Westminster system]] is usually found in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] and countries which were influenced by the British political tradition.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Arjomand|editor1-first=Saïd Amir|title=Constitutionalism and political reconstruction|date=2007|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004151741|pages=92–94|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kYmmnYKEvE0C&pg=PA94|author1=Julian Go|chapter=A Globalizing Constitutionalism?, Views from the Postcolony, 1945–2000|access-date=6 June 2020|archive-date=1 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801015306/https://books.google.com/books?id=kYmmnYKEvE0C&lpg=PA93&pg=PA94|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=How the Westminster Parliamentary System was exported around the World|url=http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/features/how-the-westminster-parliamentary-system-was-exported-around-the-world|publisher=University of Cambridge|access-date=16 December 2013|date=2 December 2013|archive-date=16 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216190945/http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/features/how-the-westminster-parliamentary-system-was-exported-around-the-world|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Seidle|first1=F. Leslie|last2=Docherty|first2=David C.|title=Reforming parliamentary democracy|date=2003|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|isbn=9780773525085|page=3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i6je60BF-3sC&pg=PA3|access-date=6 June 2020|archive-date=19 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819121018/https://books.google.com/books?id=i6je60BF-3sC&pg=PA3|url-status=live}}</ref> These parliaments tend to have a more adversarial style of debate and the [[plenary session]] of parliament is more important than committees. Some parliaments in this model are elected using a [[plurality voting system]] ([[first past the post]]), such as the United Kingdom, Canada, India and Malaysia, while others use some form of [[proportional representation]], such as Ireland and New Zealand. The [[Australian House of Representatives]] is elected using [[instant-runoff voting]], while the [[Australian Senate|Senate]] is elected using proportional representation through [[single transferable vote]]. Regardless of which system is used, the voting systems tend to allow the voter to vote for a named candidate rather than a [[closed list]]. Most Westminster systems employ strict monism, where ministers must be members of parliament simultaneously; while some Westminster systems, such as [[Bangladesh]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh|url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-details-367.html|access-date=2023-02-08|website=bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd|at=Article 56}}</ref>{{secondary source needed|date=January 2024}} permit the appointment of extra-parliamentary ministers, and others (such as [[Jamaica]]) allow outsiders to be appointed to the ministry through an appointed upper house, although a majority of ministers (which, by necessity, includes the prime minister) must come from within (the lower house of) the parliament.

====Consensus system====
{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2022}}
[[File:Berlin reichstag CP.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|The [[Reichstag Building]] in [[Berlin]], Germany. The Consensus system is used in most Western European countries.]]
* The Western European parliamentary model (e.g., Spain, Germany) tends to have a more consensual debating system and usually has semi-circular debating chambers. Consensus systems have more of a tendency to use [[proportional representation]] with [[open party list]]s than the Westminster Model legislatures. The committees of these parliaments tend to be more important than the [[plenary chamber]]. Most Western European countries do not employ strict monism, and allow extra-parliamentary ministers as a matter of course. The Netherlands, Slovakia and Sweden outright implement the principle of [[dualism (politics)|dualism]] as a form of [[separation of powers]], where Members of Parliament have to resign their place in Parliament upon being appointed (or elected) minister.

===Appointment of the head of government===

Implementations of the parliamentary system can also differ as to how the prime minister and government are appointed and whether the government needs the explicit approval of the parliament, rather than just the absence of its disapproval. While most parliamentary systems such as India require the prime minister and other ministers to be a member of the legislature, in other countries like Canada and the United Kingdom this only exists as a convention, some other countries including Norway, Sweden and the Benelux countries require a sitting member of the legislature to resign such positions upon being appointed to the executive.

* ''' The head of state appoints a prime minister who will likely have majority support in parliament'''. While in the majority of cases prime ministers in the [[Westminster system]] are the leaders of the largest party in parliament, technically the appointment of the prime minister is a prerogative exercised by the head of state (be it the monarch, the governor-general, or the president). This system is used in:

** {{flag|Australia}}
** {{flag|Canada}}
** {{flag|India}}
** {{flag|Jamaica}}
** {{flag|Malaysia}}
** {{flag|New Zealand}}
** {{flag|United Kingdom}}
** {{flag|Denmark}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ft.dk/da/folkestyret/regeringen/saadan-dannes-en-regering|title=Sådan dannes en regering / Folketinget|date=29 November 2016 |accessdate=31 July 2024}}</ref>
** {{flag|Portugal}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.parlamento.pt/sites/EN|title=The Assembleia da República as a body that exercises sovereign power / Folketinget| accessdate=16 September 2024}}</ref>
* ''' The head of state appoints a prime minister who must gain a vote of confidence within a set time.''' This system is used in:

** {{flag|Italy}}

* ''' The head of state appoints the leader of the political party holding a plurality of seats in parliament as prime minister'''. For example, in Greece, if no party has a majority, the leader of the party with a plurality of seats is given an ''exploratory mandate'' to receive the confidence of the parliament within three days. If said leader fails to obtain the confidence of parliament, then the leader of the ''second''-largest party is given the ''exploratory mandate''. If that fails, then the leader of the ''third''-largest political party is given the ''exploratory mandate'', and so on. This system is used in:

** {{flag|Greece}}

* ''' The head of state ''nominates'' a candidate for prime minister who is then submitted to parliament for approval before appointment.''' Example: Spain, where the King sends a proposal to the [[Congress of Deputies]] for approval. Also, Germany where under the [[Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany|German Basic Law]] (constitution) the [[Bundestag]] votes on a candidate nominated by the federal president. In these cases,{{Citation needed|date=July 2019}} parliament can choose another candidate who then would be appointed by the head of state. This system is used in:

** {{flag|Estonia}}
** {{flag|Germany}}
** {{flag|Spain}}

* ''' Parliament ''nominates'' a candidate whom the head of state is constitutionally obliged to appoint as prime minister.''' Example: Japan, where the [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] appoints the [[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]] on the nomination of the [[National Diet]]. Also Ireland, where the [[President of Ireland]] appoints the [[Taoiseach]] on the nomination of [[Dáil Éireann]]. This system is used in:

** {{flag|Ireland}}
** {{flag|Japan}}
** {{flag|Thailand}}

* '''A public officeholder (other than the head of state or their representative) ''nominates'' a candidate, who, if approved by parliament, is appointed as prime minister.''' Example: Under the Swedish [[Instrument of Government (1974)]], the power to appoint someone to form a government has been moved from the monarch to the Speaker of Parliament and the parliament itself. The speaker nominates a candidate, who is then elected to prime minister (''statsminister'') by the parliament if an absolute majority of the members of parliament does not vote against the candidate (i.e. they can be elected even if more members of parliament vote ''No'' than ''Yes).'' This system is used in:

** {{flag|Sweden}}

* '''Direct election by popular vote.''' Example: Israel, 1996–2001, where the prime minister was elected in a general election, with no regard to political affiliation, and whose procedure can also be described as of a [[semi-parliamentary system]].<ref name="Pouvoirs">{{cite magazine |last=Duverger |first=Maurice |author-link=Maurice Duverger |date=September 1996 |title=Les monarchies républicaines |trans-title=The crowned republics |url=http://www.revue-pouvoirs.fr/IMG/pdf/78Pouvoirs_p107-120_monarchies_republicaines.pdf |language=fr |magazine=Pouvoirs, revue française d'études constitutionnelles et politiques |location=Paris |publisher=Éditions du Seuil |issn=0152-0768 |isbn=2-02-030123-7 |issue=78 |pages=107–120 |access-date=10 September 2016 |archive-date=1 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001151614/https://revue-pouvoirs.fr/IMG/pdf/78Pouvoirs_p107-120_monarchies_republicaines.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Forms">{{cite book |last1=Frosini |first1=Justin Orlando |year=2008 |editor-last=Ferrari |editor-first=Giuseppe Franco |title=Forms of State and Forms of Government |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GFBPlYjuJYsC |publisher=Giuffrè Editore |pages=54–55 |isbn=9788814143885 |access-date=13 November 2016 |via=[[Google Books]] |archive-date=19 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819092351/https://books.google.com/books?id=GFBPlYjuJYsC |url-status=live }}</ref> This system was used in:

** {{flag|Israel}} (1996–2001)

===Power of dissolution and call for election===
Furthermore, there are variations as to what conditions exist (if any) for the government to have the right to dissolve the parliament:
* In some countries, especially those operating under a [[Westminster system]], such as the United Kingdom, Denmark, Malaysia, Australia and New Zealand, the prime minister has the ''de facto'' power to call an election, at will. In Spain, the prime minister is the only person with the ''de jure'' power to call an election, granted by Article 115 of the [[Constitution of Spain|Constitution]].
* In Israel, parliament may vote to dissolve itself in order to call an election, or the prime minister may call a snap election with presidential consent if his government is deadlocked. A non-passage of the budget automatically calls a snap election.
* Other countries only permit an election to be called in the event of a [[vote of no confidence]] against the government, a supermajority vote in favour of an early election or a prolonged deadlock in parliament. These requirements can still be circumvented. For example, in Germany in 2005, [[Gerhard Schröder]] deliberately allowed his government to lose a confidence motion, in order to call an early election.
* In Sweden, the government may call a snap election at will, but the newly elected [[Riksdag]] is only elected to fill out the previous Riksdag's term. The last time this option was used was in [[1958 Swedish general election|1958]].
* In [[Greece]], a general election is called if the [[Hellenic Parliament|Parliament]] fails to elect a new [[President of Greece|head of state]] when his or her term ends. In January 2015, [[2014–2015 Greek presidential election|this constitutional provision was exploited]] by [[Syriza]] to [[January 2015 Greek legislative election|trigger a snap election, win it]] and oust rivals [[New Democracy (Greece)|New Democracy]] from power.
* In Italy the government has no power to call a snap election. A snap election can only be called by the [[President of Italy|head of state]], following a consultation with the presidents of both houses of parliament.
* Norway is unique among parliamentary systems in that the [[Storting]] always serves the whole of its four-year term.
* In Australia, under certain, unique conditions, the [[Prime Minister of Australia|prime minister]] can request the [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor General]] to call for a [[double dissolution]], whereby all rather than only half of the [[Australian Senate|Senate]], is dissolved – in effect electing all of the Parliament simultaneously.

The parliamentary system can be contrasted with a [[presidential system]] which operates under a stricter separation of powers, whereby the executive does not form part of—nor is appointed by—the parliamentary or legislative body. In such a system, parliaments or congresses do not select or dismiss heads of government, and governments cannot request an early dissolution as may be the case for parliaments (although the parliament may still be able to dissolve itself, as in the case of [[Cyprus]]). There also exists the [[semi-presidential system]] that draws on both presidential systems and parliamentary systems by combining a powerful president with an executive responsible to parliament: for example, the [[French Fifth Republic]].

Parliamentarianism may also apply to [[Regional government|regional]] and [[local government]]s. An example is [[Oslo]] which has an executive council (Byråd) as a part of the parliamentary system. The [[Devolution in the United Kingdom|devolved nations of the United Kingdom]] are also parliamentary and which, as with the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|UK Parliament]], may hold early elections – this has only occurred with regards to the [[Northern Ireland Assembly]] in [[2017 Northern Ireland Assembly election|2017]] and [[Next Northern Ireland Assembly election|2022]].

===Anti-defection law===
{{redirect|Anti-defection law|the law in India|Anti-defection law (India)}}

A few parliamentary democratic nations such as [[Anti-defection law (India)|India]], Pakistan and Bangladesh have enacted laws that prohibit floor crossing or switching parties after the election. Under these laws, elected representatives will lose their seat in the parliament if they go against their party in votes.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://prsindia.org/uploads/media/Note%20on%20Anti-Defection.pdf |title=The Anti-Defection Law – Intent and Impact Background Note for the Conference on Effective Legislatures |access-date=16 December 2019 |archive-date=19 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819113945/http://www.prsindia.org/uploads/media/Note%20on%20Anti-Defection.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.legalservicesindia.com/article/1937/Anti-defection-law-the-challenges.html|title=Anti-defection law the challenges|website=legalservicesindia.com|access-date=16 December 2019|archive-date=2 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202021958/http://www.legalservicesindia.com/article/1937/Anti-defection-law-the-challenges.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://nujslawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/kartik-khanna-and-dhvani-shah.pdf|title=ANTI-DEFECTION LAW: A DEATH KNELL FOR PARLIAMENTARY DISSENT?|journal=NUJS Law Review|date=Mar 2012|access-date=15 May 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528062743/http://nujslawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/kartik-khanna-and-dhvani-shah.pdf|archive-date=28 May 2016}}</ref>

In the UK parliament, a member is free to cross over to a different party. In Canada and Australia, there are no restraints on legislators switching sides.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://barandbench.com/anti-defection-laws-in-india-its-flaws-and-its-falls/|title=[Columns] Anti-Defection Laws in India: Its flaws and its falls|date=1 August 2019}}</ref> In New Zealand, [[Waka-jumping#Legislation|waka-jumping legislation]] provides that MPs who switch parties or are expelled from their party may be expelled from Parliament at the request of their former party's leader.

=== Parliamentary sovereignty ===
{{Further|Parliamentary sovereignty}}
A few parliamentary democracies such as the [[United Kingdom]] and [[New Zealand]] have weak or non-existent checks on the legislative power of their Parliaments,<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 October 2022 |title=UK Parliament glossary |url=https://www.parliament.uk/site-information/glossary/parliamentary-sovereignty/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928161907/https://www.parliament.uk/site-information/glossary/parliamentary-sovereignty/ |archive-date=28 September 2022 |access-date=27 October 2022 |website=UK Parliament}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=20 January 2016 |title=Our system of government |url=https://www.parliament.nz/en/visit-and-learn/how-parliament-works/our-system-of-government/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221017113130/https://www.parliament.nz/en/visit-and-learn/how-parliament-works/our-system-of-government/ |archive-date=17 October 2022 |access-date=27 October 2022 |publisher=New Zealand Parliament}}</ref> where any newly approved Act shall take precedence over all prior Acts. All laws are equally unentrenched, wherein [[judicial review]] may not outright annul nor amend them, as frequently occurs in other parliamentary systems like [[Constitutional review in Germany|Germany]]. Whilst the head of state for both nations ([[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|Monarch]], and or [[Governor-General of New Zealand|Governor General]]) has the de jure power to withhold [[Royal assent|assent]] to any bill passed by their Parliament, this check has not been exercised in Britain since the [[Scottish Militia Bill|1708 Scottish Militia Bill]].

Whilst both the UK and New Zealand have some Acts or parliamentary rules establishing [[Supermajority|supermajorities]] or additional legislative procedures for certain legislation, such as previously with the [[Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011]] (FTPA), these can be bypassed through the enactment of another that amends or ignores these supermajorities away, such as with the [[Early Parliamentary General Election Act 2019]] – bypassing the 2/3rd supermajority required for an early dissolution under the FTPA<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 November 2021 |title=Fixed-term Parliament Act 2011 |url=https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/sn06111/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221021190612/https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/sn06111/ |archive-date=21 October 2022 |access-date=27 October 2022 |website=UK Parliament}}</ref> -, which enabled the early dissolution for the [[2019 United Kingdom general election|2019 general election]].

=== Metrics ===
Parliamentarism metrics allow a quantitative comparison of the strength of parliamentary systems for individual countries. One parliamentarism metric is the Parliamentary Powers Index.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Fish|first1=M. Steven|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/handbook-of-national-legislatures/E069CD547EBAA4FE7D241E115C18664E|title=The Handbook of National Legislatures: A Global Survey|last2=Kroenig|first2=Matthew|date=2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-51466-8|location=Cambridge|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511575655}}</ref>