Editing Parliament (section)

==Early parliaments==
{{See also|History of parliamentarism}}
Since ancient times, when societies were tribal, there were councils or a headman whose decisions were assessed by village elders. This is called [[tribalism]].<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/467746/political-system Political System] Encyclopædia Britannica Online</ref> Some scholars suggest that in ancient [[Mesopotamia]] there was a primitive democratic government where the kings were assessed by council.<ref>Jacobsen, T. (July 1943). "Primitive Democracy in Ancient Mesopotamia". Journal of Near Eastern Studies 2 (3): 159–172. {{doi|10.1086/370672}}. {{JSTOR|542482}}.</ref> The same has been said about ancient India, where some form of deliberative assemblies existed, and therefore there was some form of [[democracy]].<ref>[[Eric W. Robinson|Robinson, E. W.]] (1997). [https://books.google.com/books?id=T1kfcobFRSMC The First Democracies: Early Popular Government Outside Athens]. Franz Steiner Verlag. {{ISBN|3-515-06951-8}}.</ref> However, these claims are not accepted by other scholars, who see these forms of government as [[oligarchies]].<ref>Bailkey, N. (July 1967). "Early Mesopotamian Constitutional Development". American History Review 72 (4): 1211–1236. {{doi|10.2307/1847791}}. {{JSTOR|1847791}}.</ref><ref>Larsen, J.A.O. (Jan. 1973). "Demokratia". Classical Philology 68 (1): 45–46. {{doi|10.1086/365921}}. {{JSTOR|268788}}.</ref><ref>de Sainte, C.G.E.M. (2006). [https://books.google.com/books?id=LkYIAAAAIAAJ The Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek World]. Cornell University Press. {{ISBN|0-8014-1442-3}}.</ref><ref>Bongard-Levin, G.M. (1986). A complex study of Ancient India. South Asia Books. {{ISBN|81-202-0141-8}}.</ref><ref>Sharma, J.P. (1968). [https://books.google.com/books?id=sQKNAAAAMAAJ Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India]. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.</ref>

[[Ancient Athens]] was the cradle of [[democracy]].<ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ccoOfhyjFNEC&q=athens| title = John Dunn:''Democracy: A History'', p.24| isbn = 9780871139313| last1 = Dunn| first1 = John| year = 2005| publisher = Atlantic Monthly Press}}</ref> The [[Athenian assembly]] ({{lang|grc|ἐκκλησία}}, ''ekklesia'') was the most important institution, and every free male [[citizen]] could take part in the discussions. Slaves and women could not. However, [[Athenian democracy]] was not representative, but rather direct, and therefore the ''ekklesia'' was different from the parliamentary system.

The [[Roman Republic]] had [[Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic|legislative assemblies]], who had the final say regarding the election of magistrates, the enactment of new [[statute]]s, the carrying out of capital punishment, the declaration of war and peace, and the creation (or dissolution) of alliances.<ref>Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics. {{ISBN|0-543-92749-0}}.</ref> The [[Roman Senate]] controlled money, administration, and the details of foreign policy.<ref>Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. US Government Printing Office Senate Document 103–23.</ref>

Some Muslim scholars argue that the Islamic [[shura]] (a method of taking decisions in Islamic societies) is analogous to the parliament.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alhewar.com/SadekShura.htm|title=The Shura Principle in Islam – by Sadek Sulaiman|work=alhewar.com}}</ref> However, other scholars (notably from [[Hizb ut-Tahrir]]) highlight what they consider fundamental differences between the shura system and the parliamentary system.<ref>[http://www.hizb-ut-tahrir.org/PDF/EN/en_books_pdf/system_of_islam.pdf ''The System of Islam, (Nidham ul Islam)'' by Taqiuddin an-Nabhani] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220913210035/http://www.hizb-ut-tahrir.org/PDF/EN/en_books_pdf/system_of_islam.pdf |date=13 September 2022 }}, Al-Khilafa Publications, 1423 AH – 2002 CE, p.61</ref><ref>[http://www.hizb-ut-tahrir.org/PDF/EN/en_books_pdf/system_of_islam.pdf ''The System of Islam'',  by Taqiuddin an-Nabhani] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220913210035/http://www.hizb-ut-tahrir.org/PDF/EN/en_books_pdf/system_of_islam.pdf |date=13 September 2022 }}, p.39</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ijtihad.org/shura.htm|title=Shura and Democracy|work=ijtihad.org}}</ref>

===England===
{{main|Parliament of England}}

====Early forms of assembly====
England has long had a tradition of a body of men who would assist and advise the king on important matters. Under the [[Anglo-Saxon]] kings, there was an advisory council, the [[Witenagemot]]. The name derives from the [[Old English]] ƿitena ȝemōt, or witena gemōt, for "meeting of wise men". The first recorded act of a witenagemot was [[Law of Æthelberht|the law code issued by King Æthelberht]] of Kent around 600, the earliest document which survives in sustained Old English prose; however, the Witan was certainly in existence long before then.<ref>Liebermann, Felix, The National Assembly in the Anglo-Saxon Period (Halle, 1913; repr. New York, 1961).</ref> The Witan, along with the folkmoots (local assemblies), is an important ancestor of the modern English parliament.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/originsofparliament/birthofparliament/overview/origins/|title=Anglo-Saxon origins|work=UK Parliament}}</ref>

As part of the [[Norman Conquest]], the new king, [[William I of England|William I]], did away with the Witenagemot, replacing it with a [[Curia Regis]] ("King's Council"). Membership of the Curia was largely restricted to the [[tenant-in-chief|tenants-in-chief]], the few nobles who "rented" great estates directly from the king, along with [[ecclesiastic]]s. William brought to England the [[feudal system]] of his native [[Normandy]], and sought the advice of the Curia Regis before making laws. This is the original body from which the Parliament, the higher courts of law, and the [[Privy Council]] and Cabinet descend. Of these, the legislature is formally the High Court of Parliament; judges sit in the [[Senior Courts of England and Wales|Supreme Court of Judicature]]. Only the executive government is no longer conducted in a royal court.

Most historians date the emergence of a parliament with some degree of power, to which the throne had to defer, no later than the reign of [[Edward I of England|Edward I]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Kaeuper|first=Richard W.|title=War Justice and Public Order: England and France in the Later Middle Ages|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=1988|isbn=9780198228738|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z35oAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> Like previous kings, Edward called leading nobles and church leaders to discuss government matters, especially [[finance]] and [[taxation]]. A meeting in 1295 became known as the [[Model Parliament]] because it set the pattern for later Parliaments. The significant difference between the Model Parliament and the earlier Curia Regis was the addition of the Commons: that is, the inclusion of elected representatives of rural landowners and of townsmen. In 1307, Edward agreed not to collect certain taxes without the "consent of the realm" through parliament. He also enlarged the court system.

====''Magna Carta'' and the model parliament====
[[File:Magna Carta (British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106).jpg|thumb|A 1215 edition of ''[[Magna Carta]]'', as featured on display at the British Library]]
The tenants-in-chief often struggled for power with the ecclesiastics and the king. In 1215, they secured ''[[Magna Carta]]'' from [[John of England|King John of England]]. This established that the king may not levy or collect any taxes (except the feudal taxes to which they were hitherto accustomed), save with the consent of a council. It was also established that the most important tenants-in-chief and ecclesiastics be summoned to the council by personal writs from the sovereign, and that all others be summoned to the council by general writs from the [[sheriff]]s of their counties. Modern government has its origins in the Curia Regis; parliament descends from the Great Council, later known as the ''parliamentum'', established by ''Magna Carta''.

During the reign of [[Henry III of England|King Henry III]] (13th century), [[Parliament of England|English Parliaments]] included elected representatives from shires and towns. Thus these parliaments are considered forerunners of the modern parliament.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/originsofparliament/birthofparliament/overview/firstparliaments/ |title=Birth of the English Parliament: The first Parliaments |publisher=Parliament.uk |access-date=13 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101013132032/http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/originsofparliament/birthofparliament/overview/firstparliaments/ |archive-date=13 October 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

In 1265, [[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester|Simon de Montfort]], then in rebellion against Henry III, summoned [[Simon de Montfort's Parliament|a parliament]] of his supporters without royal authorisation. The [[archbishop]]s, [[bishop]]s, [[abbot]]s, [[earl]]s, and [[baron]]s were summoned, as were two [[knight]]s from each shire and two [[burgess (title)|burgesses]] from each [[borough]]. Knights had been summoned to previous councils, but it was unprecedented for the boroughs to be represented. In 1295, [[Edward I of England|Edward I]]  adopted De Montfort's ideas for representation and election in the so-called "[[Model Parliament]]". At first, each [[Estates of the realm|estate]] debated independently; by the reign of [[Edward III of England|Edward III]], however, Parliament had grown closer to its modern form, with the legislative body having two separate chambers.

====Parliament under Henry VIII and Edward VI====
The purpose and structure of Parliament in Tudor England underwent a significant transformation under the reign of [[Henry VIII]]. Originally its methods were primarily medieval, and the monarch still possessed a form of inarguable dominion over its decisions. According to Elton, it was [[Thomas Cromwell]], 1st Earl of Essex, then chief minister to Henry VIII, who initiated still other changes within parliament.

The [[Acts of Supremacy]] established the monarch as head of the Church of England.

====Civil War and beyond====
The power of Parliament, in its relationship with the monarch, increased considerably after the [[English Civil War|Civil War]], and again at the [[Glorious Revolution]]. It also provided the country with unprecedented stability. More stability, in turn, helped assure more effective management, organisation, and efficiency. Parliament printed statutes and devised a more coherent [[parliamentary procedure]].

The rise of Parliament proved especially important in the sense that it limited the repercussions of dynastic complications that had so often plunged England into civil war. Parliament still ran the country even in the absence of suitable heirs to the throne, and its legitimacy as a decision-making body reduced the royal prerogatives of kings like Henry VIII and the importance of their whims. For example, Henry VIII could not simply establish supremacy by proclamation; he required Parliament to enforce statutes and add felonies and treasons. An important liberty for Parliament was its freedom of speech; Henry allowed anything to be spoken openly within Parliament and speakers could not face arrest – a fact which they exploited incessantly. Nevertheless, Parliament in Henry VIII's time offered up very little objection to the monarch's desires. Under his and [[Edward I of England|Edward]]'s reign, the legislative body complied willingly with the majority of the kings' decisions.

Much of this compliance stemmed from how the English viewed and traditionally understood authority. As Williams described it, "King and parliament were not separate entities, but a single body, of which the monarch was the senior partner and the Lords and the Commons the lesser, but still essential, members."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Monaghan |first1=E. Jennifer |title=Learning to Read and Write in Colonial America |date=2002 |publisher=University of Massachusetts Press}}</ref>

[[File:Statue_of_Oliver_Cromwell_280_tcm4-569959.jpg|thumb|The statue of [[Oliver Cromwell]], as it stands outside the House of Commons at the Palace of Westminster]]

Although its role in government had expanded significantly in the mid 16th century, the Parliament of England saw some of its most important gains in the 17th century. A [[English Civil War|series of conflicts]] between the Crown and Parliament culminated in the execution of [[Charles I of England|King Charles I]] in 1649. For a brief period, England became a [[Commonwealth of England|commonwealth]], with [[Oliver Cromwell]] the de facto ruler, with the title of [[Lord Protector]]. Frustrated with its decisions, Cromwell purged and suspended Parliament on several occasions.

A controversial figure notorious for [[Cromwellian conquest of Ireland|his actions in Ireland]], Cromwell is nonetheless regarded as essential to the growth of democracy in England.<ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/timelines/zttpsbk |title = Was Oliver Cromwell the father of British democracy? |publisher=BBC |work= iWonder |access-date=5 November 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151121190743/https://www.bbc.co.uk/timelines/zttpsbk |archive-date= Nov 21, 2015 }}</ref> The years of the Commonwealth, coupled with the [[Restoration (1660)|restoration of the monarchy]] in 1660 and the subsequent [[Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution of 1688]], helped reinforce and strengthen Parliament as an institution separate from the Crown.

====Acts of Union====
The Parliament of England met until it merged with the [[Parliament of Scotland]] under the [[Acts of Union 1707|Acts of Union]]. This union created the new [[Parliament of Great Britain]] in 1707. The Parliament of the United Kingdom followed at the union with Ireland.

===France===
{{main|Estates General (France)}}
Originally, there was only the [[Parlement of Paris]], born out of the Curia Regis in 1307, and located inside the medieval royal palace, now the [[Paris Hall of Justice]]. The jurisdiction of the ''Parliament'' of Paris covered the entire kingdom. In the thirteenth century, judicial functions were added. In 1443, following the turmoil of the [[Hundred Years' War]], King [[Charles VII of France]] granted [[Languedoc]] its own ''parliament'' by establishing the ''Parliament'' of [[Toulouse]], the first ''parliament'' outside of Paris, whose jurisdiction extended over the most part of southern France. From 1443 until the [[French Revolution]] several other ''parliaments'' were created in some provinces of France ([[Grenoble]], [[Bordeaux]]).

All the ''parliaments'' could issue regulatory decrees for the application of royal edicts or of customary practices; they could also refuse to register laws that they judged contrary to fundamental law or simply as being untimely. Parliamentary power in France was suppressed more so than in England as a result of [[Absolute monarchy|absolutism]], and parliaments were eventually overshadowed by the larger [[Estates General (France)|Estates General]], up until the [[French Revolution]], when the last Estates General transformed itself into a [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]], a legislative body whose existence is independent of the royal power.

===Germanic and Nordic countries===
[[File:Alþingishúsið.jpg|thumb|right|Iceland's parliament house, the [[Alþingishúsið]], at [[Austurvöllur]] in [[Reykjavík]], built in 1880–1881, home of one of the oldest still-acting parliaments in the world]]
A ''[[thing (assembly)|thing]]'' or ''ting'' ([[Old Norse]] and {{langx|is|þing}}; other modern [[Scandinavian languages|Scandinavian]]: ''ting'', ''ding'' in [[Dutch language|Dutch]]) was the governing assembly in [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] societies, made up of the free men of the community and presided by [[lawspeaker]]s.

The thing was the assembly of the free men of a country, province or a [[hundred (division)|hundred]] ''(hundare/härad/herred)''. There were consequently, hierarchies of things, so that the local things were represented at the thing for a larger area, for a province or land. At the thing, disputes were solved and political decisions were made. The place for the thing was often also the place for public religious rites and for commerce.

The thing met at regular intervals, legislated, elected [[Germanic chieftains|chieftains]] and [[Germanic king|kings]], and judged according to the law, which was memorised and recited by the "[[law speaker]]" (the judge).

The Icelandic, Faroese and Manx parliaments trace their origins back to the [[Viking expansion]] originating from the [[petty kingdoms of Norway]] as well as Denmark, replicating Viking government systems in the conquered territories, such as those represented by the [[Gulating]] near Bergen in western Norway:{{citation needed|date=February 2018}}
* The Icelandic [[Althing]], dating from 930.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurstwic.org/history/articles/society/text/laws.htm|title= Viking-age Laws and Legal Procedures |website=Hurstwic |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231214225600/https://www.hurstwic.org/history/articles/society/text/laws.htm |archive-date= Dec 14, 2023 }}</ref>
* The Faroese [[Løgting]], dating from a similar period.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.logting.fo/files/File/2008/faldari_EN_web.pdf|title=The Faroese Parliament |publisher=Løgting |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231126201839/https://www.logting.fo/files/File/2008/faldari_EN_web.pdf |archive-date= Nov 26, 2023 }}</ref>
* The Manx [[Tynwald]], which claims to be over 1,000 years old.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.tynwald.org.im/about/Pages/default.aspx |title=About |publisher=Tynwald |access-date=14 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120602004259/http://www.tynwald.org.im/about/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date= Jun 2, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Downie |first=Leonard Jr. |date=6 July 1979 |title=Isle of Man Marks Millennium with Pomp, Circumstance |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1979/07/06/isle-of-man-marks-millennium-with-pomp-circumstance/abbf8543-2bfb-4d8d-a3d3-7aa2949b10a7/ | newspaper=The Washington Post |location= Washington DC |access-date=24 March 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Robinson |first1=Vaughan |last2=McCarroll |first2=Danny |title=The Isle of Man: celebrating a sense of place |publisher=[[Liverpool University Press]] |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-85323-036-6 |page=123 }}</ref>

[[File:Eduskunta istuntosali.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Art Deco|Art Deco-styled]] session hall of the [[Parliament House, Helsinki|Parliament House of Finland]]]]
Later national diets with chambers for different estates developed, e.g. in Sweden and in Finland (which was part of Sweden until 1809), each with a [[Swedish House of Nobility|House of Knights]] for the nobility. In both these countries, the national parliaments are now called [[Riksdag of the Estates|riksdag]] (in Finland also ''eduskunta''), a word used since the Middle Ages and equivalent of the German word [[Reichstag (disambiguation)|Reichstag]]<!--intentional link to DAB page-->.

Today the term lives on in the official names of national legislatures and other institutions in the North Germanic{{clarify|date=July 2023}} countries. In [[Yorkshire]] and former [[Danelaw]] areas of England, which were subject to Norse invasion and settlement, the [[wapentake]] was another name for the same institution.

===Italy===
The [[Sicilian Parliament]], dating to 1097, evolved as the legislature of the [[Kingdom of Sicily]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://sites.google.com/site/ilparlamento02/storia-del-parlamento| title = Storia del Parlamento – Il Parlamento| access-date = 24 March 2014| archive-date = 27 June 2022| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220627095732/https://sites.google.com/site/ilparlamento02/storia-del-parlamento| url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>Enzo Gancitano, ''Mazara dopo i Musulmani fino alle Signorie – Dal Vescovado all'Inquisizione'', Angelo Mazzotta Editore, 2001, p. 30.</ref>

===Hungary===
{{main|Diet of Hungary}}
The Diet of Hungary, or originally Parlamentum Publicum and Parlamentum Generale <ref>András Gergely, Gábor Máthé: The Hungarian state: thousand years in Europe (published in 2000)</ref> ({{langx|hu|Országgyűlés}}), became the supreme legislative institution in the [[Kingdom of Hungary in the Middle Ages|medieval kingdom of Hungary]] from the 1290s,<ref>[[Elemér Hantos]]: The Magna Carta of the English And of the Hungarian Constitution (1904)</ref> and in its successor states, [[Royal Hungary]] and the [[Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen|Habsburg kingdom of Hungary]] throughout the [[Early Modern period]]. The name of the legislative body was originally "Parlamentum" during the Middle Ages, the "Diet" expression gained mostly in the Early Modern period.<ref>Cecil Marcus Knatchbull-Hugessen Brabourne (4th Baron): The political evolution of the Hungarian nation: (Volume I. in 1908)</ref> It convened at regular intervals with interruptions during the period of 1527 to 1918, and again until 1946.

Some researchers have traced the roots of the Hungarian institution of national assemblies as far back as the 11th century. This based on documentary evidence that, on certain "important occasions" under the reigns of [[Ladislaus I of Hungary|King Ladislaus I]] and [[Coloman of Hungary|King Coloman]] "the Learned", assemblies were held on a national scale where both ecclesiastic and secular dignitaries made appearances.<ref>{{cite web |first1=Zoltán |last1=Szente |title=The Historic Origins of the National Assembly in Hungary|url=http://www.historiaconstitucional.com/index.php/historiaconstitucional/article/viewFile/37/28 |website=Historia Constitucional |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151122040412/http://www.historiaconstitucional.com/index.php/historiaconstitucional/article/viewFile/37/28 |archive-date= Nov 22, 2015 }}</ref>
The first exact written mention of the word "parlamentum" (Parliament) for the nation-wide assembly originated during the reign of [[Andrew II of Hungary|King Andrew II]] in the [[Golden Bull of 1222]], which reaffirmed the rights of the smaller nobles of the old and new classes of royal servants (servientes regis) against both the crown and the magnates, and to defend the rights of the whole nation against the crown by restricting the powers of the latter in certain fields and legalizing refusal to obey its unlawful/unconstitutional commands (the "''ius resistendi''").
The lesser nobles also began to present Andrew with grievances, a practice that evolved into the institution of the Hungarian Diet.

An institutionalized Hungarian parliament emerged during the 14th and 15th centuries. Beginning under [[Charles I of Hungary|King Charles I]], continuing under subsequent kings through into the reign of [[Matthias Corvinus|King Matthias I]], the Diet was essentially convened by the king. However, under the rule of heavy handed kings like Louis the Great and during reign of the early absolutist Matthias Corvinus the parliaments were often convened to announce the royal decisions, and had no significant power of its own. Since the reign of the Jagiellonian dynasty, the parliament has regained most of its former power.

===Poland===
[[File:The_First_Sejm_1182.jpg|thumb|The First Sejm in Łęczyca. Recording of laws. A.D. 1180]]
According to the ''[[Chronicle]]s'' of [[Gallus Anonymus]], the first legendary Polish ruler, [[Siemowit]], who began the [[Piast dynasty]], was chosen by an ancient ''[[Veche|wiec]]'' council. The idea of the ''wiec'' led to the development of the Polish parliament, the ''[[Sejm]]'', in around 1180.
[[File:20070907 sejm rp 100B5000.jpg|thumb|The modern [[Sejm]]]]
The term "sejm" comes from an old Polish expression denoting a meeting of the populace. The power of early sejms grew between 1146 and 1295, when the power of individual rulers waned and various councils grew stronger. Since the 14th century irregular sejms (described in various [[Latin]] sources as ''contentio generalis, conventio magna, conventio solemna, parlamentum, parlamentum generale, dieta'') have been convened by Poland's monarchs. From 1374, the king had to receive permission from that assembly to raise [[tax]]es and the 1454 [[Nieszawa Statutes]] granted the [[szlachta]] (nobles) unprecedented concessions and authority. The General Sejm (Polish ''sejm generalny'' or ''sejm walny''), first convoked by the [[John I Albert]] in 1493 near [[Piotrków Trybunalski|Piotrków]], evolved from earlier regional and provincial meetings called ''[[sejmik]]s''. Simultaneously, the [[Senate of Poland|Senate]] was founded on the earlier ''[[curia regis]]'', convened at the king's discretion. Hence, the year 1493 marked the beginning of a [[Bicameral parliament|bicameral legislative body of government]]. With the subsequent development of Polish [[Golden Liberty]] in the next several decades, the Sejm's powers systematically increased. Poland was among the few countries in Europe where the parliament played an especially important role in its national identity as it contributed to the unity of the nation and the state. 

The general parliament of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] consisted of three estates – the King of Poland, the Senate (consisting of Ministers, Palatines, Castellans and Roman Catholic Bishops) and the Chamber of Envoys comprising 170 nobles acting on behalf of their holdings as well as representatives of major cities, who did not possess any voting privileges. In 1573, a convocation sejm established an [[Royal elections in Poland|elective monarchy]] in the Commonwealth.

===Portugal===
{{main|Portuguese Cortes}}
After its self-proclamation as an independent kingdom in 1139 by [[Afonso I of Portugal]] (followed by the recognition by the [[Kingdom of León]] in the [[Treaty of Zamora]] of 1143), the first historically established Cortes of the [[Kingdom of Portugal]] occurred in 1211 in [[Coimbra]] by initiative of [[Afonso II of Portugal]]. These established the first general laws of the kingdom (''Leis Gerais do Reino''): protection of the king's property, stipulation of measures for the administration of justice and the rights of his subjects to be protected from abuses by royal officials, and confirming the clerical donations of the previous king [[Sancho I of Portugal]]. These Cortes also affirmed the validity of canon law for the Church in Portugal, while introducing the prohibition of the purchase of lands by churches or monasteries (although they can be acquired by donations and legacies).

After the conquest of [[Algarve]] in 1249, the [[Kingdom of Portugal]] completed its [[Reconquista]]. In 1254 King [[Afonso III of Portugal]] summoned [[Portuguese Cortes]] in [[Leiria]], with the inclusion of [[bourgeoisie|burghers]] from old and newly incorporated municipalities. This inclusion establishes the Cortes of Leiria of 1254 as the second sample of modern [[parliamentarism]] in the history of Europe (after the [[Cortes of León]] in 1188). In these Cortes the [[monetagio]] was introduced: a fixed sum was to be paid by the burghers to the Crown as a substitute for the [[septennium]] (the traditional revision of the face value of coinage by the Crown every seven years). These Cortes also introduced [[Staple right|staple]] laws on the [[Douro River]], favoring the new royal city of [[Vila Nova de Gaia]] at the expense of the old episcopal city of Porto.

The [[Portuguese Cortes]] met again under King [[Afonso III of Portugal]] in 1256, 1261 and 1273, always by royal summon. Medieval Kings of Portugal continued to rely on small assemblies of notables, and only summoned the full Cortes on extraordinary occasions. A Cortes would be called if the king wanted to introduce new taxes, change some fundamental laws, announce significant shifts in foreign policy (e.g. ratify treaties), or settle matters of royal succession, issues where the cooperation and assent of the towns was thought necessary. Changing taxation (especially requesting war subsidies), was probably the most frequent reason for convening the Cortes. As the nobles and clergy were largely tax-exempt, setting taxation involved intensive negotiations between the royal council and the [[bourgeoisie|burgher]] delegates at the Cortes.

Delegates (''procuradores'') not only considered the king's proposals, but, in turn, also used the Cortes to submit petitions of their own to the royal council on a myriad of matters, e.g. extending and confirming town privileges, punishing abuses of officials, introducing new price controls, constraints on [[Jews]], pledges on coinage, etc. The royal response to these petitions became enshrined as ordinances and statutes, thus giving the Cortes the aspect of a legislature. These petitions were originally referred to as ''aggravamentos'' (grievances) then ''artigos'' (articles) and eventually ''capitulos'' (chapters). In a Cortes-Gerais, petitions were discussed and voted upon separately by each estate and required the approval of at least two of the three estates before being passed up to the royal council. The proposal was then subject to royal veto (either accepted or rejected by the king in its entirety) before becoming law.

Nonetheless, the exact extent of Cortes power was ambiguous. Kings insisted on their ancient prerogative to promulgate laws independently of the Cortes. The compromise, in theory, was that ordinances enacted in Cortes could only be modified or repealed by Cortes. But even that principle was often circumvented or ignored in practice.

The Cortes probably had their heyday in the 14th and 15th centuries, reaching their apex when [[John I of Portugal]] relied almost wholly upon the bourgeoisie for his power. For a period after the 1383–1385 Crisis, the Cortes were convened almost annually. But as time went on, they became less important. Portuguese monarchs, tapping into the riches of the [[Portuguese empire]] overseas, grew less dependent on Cortes subsidies and convened them less frequently. [[John II of Portugal|John II]] (r.1481-1495) used them to break the high nobility, but dispensed with them otherwise. [[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel I]] (r.1495-1521) convened them only four times in his long reign. By the time of [[Sebastian of Portugal|Sebastian]] (r.1554–1578), the Cortes was practically an irrelevance.

Curiously, the Cortes gained a new importance with the Iberian Union of 1581, finding a role as the representative of Portuguese interests to the new [[Habsburg]] monarch. The Cortes played a critical role in the [[1640 Restoration]], and enjoyed a brief period of resurgence during the reign of [[John IV of Portugal]] (r.1640-1656). But by the end of the 17th century, it found itself sidelined once again. The last Cortes met in 1698, for the mere formality of confirming the appointment of Infante John (future [[John V of Portugal]]) as the successor of [[Peter II of Portugal]]. Thereafter, Portuguese kings ruled as absolute monarchs and no Cortes were assembled for over a century. This state of affairs came to an end with the [[Liberal Revolution of 1820]], which set in motion the introduction of a new constitution, and a permanent and proper parliament, that however inherited the name of Cortes Gerais.

===Russia===
[[File:Фракция ЕР В Зале Пленарных Заседаний ГД.JPG|thumb|[[State Duma]] of the [[Federal Assembly of Russia]]]]
The [[Zemsky Sobor|zemsky sobor]] (Russian: зе́мский собо́р) was the first Russian parliament of the feudal Estates type, in the 16th and 17th centuries. The term roughly means assembly of the land.

It could be summoned either by [[Tsardom of Russia|tsar]], or [[Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus'|patriarch]], or the [[Boyar Duma]]. Three categories of population, comparable to the Estates-General of France but with the numbering of the first two Estates reversed, participated in the assembly:

* Nobility and high bureaucracy, including the Boyar Duma
* The Holy Sobor of high [[Russian Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] clergy
* Representatives of merchants and townspeople (third estate)

The name of the parliament of nowadays Russian Federation is the [[Federal Assembly of Russia]]. The term for its lower house, [[State Duma]] (which is better known than the Federal Assembly itself, and is often mistaken for the entirety of the parliament) comes from the Russian word ''думать'' (''dumat''),  "to think". The [[Boyar Duma]] was an advisory council to the [[grand prince]]s and [[tsars]] of [[Tsardom of Russia|Muscovy]]. The Duma was discontinued by [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]], who transferred its functions to the [[Governing Senate]] in 1711.

====Novgorod and Pskov====
The ''[[veche]]'' was the highest legislature and judicial authority in the republic of [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]] until 1478. In its sister state, [[Pskov Republic|Pskov]], a separate veche operated until 1510.

Since the Novgorod revolution of 1137 ousted the ruling [[grand prince]], the veche became the supreme state authority. After the reforms of 1410, the veche was restructured on a model similar to that of [[Venice]], becoming the [[Commons]] chamber of the parliament. An upper [[Senate]]-like Council of Lords was also created, with title membership for all former city magistrates. Some sources indicate that veche membership may have become full-time, and parliament deputies were now called ''vechniks''.  It is recounted that the Novgorod assembly could be summoned by anyone who rung the veche [[bell (instrument)|bell]], although it is more likely that the common procedure was more complex. This bell was a symbol of republican sovereignty and independence. The whole population of the city—boyars, merchants, and common citizens—then gathered at [[Yaroslav's Court]]. Separate assemblies could be held in the districts of Novgorod. In Pskov the veche assembled in the court of the [[Trinity Cathedral in Pskov|Trinity cathedral]].

===Roman Catholic Church===
{{main|Conciliarism}}
"[[Conciliarism]]" or the "conciliar movement", was a reform movement in the 14th and 15th century [[Roman Catholic Church]] which held that final authority in spiritual matters resided with the Roman Church as corporation of Christians, embodied by a [[Ecumenical council|general church council]], not with the [[pope]]. In effect, the movement sought – ultimately, in vain – to create an All-Catholic Parliament. Its struggle with the Papacy had many points in common with the struggle of parliaments in specific countries against the authority of Kings and other secular rulers.

===Scotland===
{{main|Parliament of Scotland}}
[[File:Scottish Parliament, Main Debating Chamber - geograph.org.uk - 1650829.jpg|thumb|The debating chamber of the reconvened [[Scottish Parliament]] from the public gallery]]
From the 10th century the [[Kingdom of Alba]] was ruled by chiefs (''[[Taoiseach|toisechs]]'') and subkings (''[[mormaers]]'') under the [[suzerainty]], real or nominal, of a [[High King]]. Popular assemblies, as in Ireland, were involved in law-making, and sometimes in king-making, although the introduction of [[tanistry]]—naming a successor in the lifetime of a king—made the second less than common. These early assemblies cannot be considered "parliaments" in the later sense of the word, and were entirely separate from the later, Norman-influenced, institution.

The [[Parliament of Scotland]] evolved during the [[Middle Ages]] from the King's Council of Bishops and Earls. The unicameral parliament is first found on record, referred to as a ''[[Parliament of Scotland|colloquium]]'', in 1235 at [[Kirkliston]] (a village now in [[Edinburgh]]).

By the early fourteenth century the attendance of knights and [[freehold (law)|freeholders]] had become important, and from 1326 [[burgh]] commissioners attended. Consisting of the Three Estates; of [[clerics]], lay [[tenant-in-chief|tenants-in-chief]] and burgh commissioners sitting in a single chamber, the Scottish parliament acquired significant powers over particular issues. Most obviously it was needed for consent for [[taxation]] (although taxation was only raised irregularly in Scotland in the [[medieval]] period), but it also had a strong influence over [[justice]], [[foreign policy]], war, and all manner of other legislation, whether political, ecclesiastical, social or economic. Parliamentary business was also carried out by "sister" institutions, before c. 1500 by [[General Council (Scotland)|General Council]] and thereafter by the [[Convention of Estates]]. These could carry out much business also dealt with by Parliament – taxation, legislation and policy-making – but lacked the ultimate authority of a full parliament.

The parliament, which is also referred to as the Estates of Scotland, the Three Estates, the Scots Parliament or the auld Scots Parliament ([[English language|Eng]]: ''old''), met until the [[Acts of Union 1707|Acts of Union]] merged the Parliament of Scotland and the [[Parliament of England]], creating the new [[Parliament of Great Britain]] in 1707.

Following the [[1997 Scottish devolution referendum]], and the passing of the [[Scotland Act 1998]] by the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]], the [[Scottish Parliament]] was reconvened on 1 July 1999, although with much more limited powers than its 18th-century predecessor. The parliament has sat since 2004 at its newly constructed [[Scottish Parliament Building]] in Edinburgh, situated at the foot of the [[Royal Mile]], next to the royal palace of [[Holyroodhouse]].

===Spain===
[[File:Daoiz o Velarde.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Congress of Deputies]], the lower house of the [[Spanish Parliament]]]]
{{main|Cortes Generales}}
Although there are documented councils held in 873, 1020, 1050 and 1063, there was no representation of commoners. What is considered to be the first parliament, the [[Cortes of León]], was held in the [[Kingdom of León]] in 1188.<ref>Michael Burger: The Shaping of Western Civilization: From Antiquity To the Enlightenment. Page: 190</ref><ref>Susana Galera: Judicial Review: A Comparative Analysis Inside the European Legal System. Page: 21</ref><ref>Gaines Post: Studies in Medieval Legal Thought: Public Law And the State, 1100–1322 Page 62</ref> According to the UNESCO, the Decreta of Leon of 1188 is the oldest documentary manifestation of the European parliamentary system. In addition, UNESCO granted the 1188 Cortes of Alfonso IX the title of "Memory of the World" and the city of [[León, Spain|Leon]] has been recognized as the "Cradle of Parliamentarism".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aytoleon.es/ES/AYUNTAMIENTO/CUNADELPARLAMENTARISMO/Paginas/cuna_parlamentarismo_ingles.aspx|title=Ayuntamiento de León – León, cradle of parliamentarism|website=www.aytoleon.es|access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2013/06/19/castillayleon/1371632533.html|title=La Unesco reconoce a León Como Cuna Mundial del parlamentarismo|last=Internet|first=Unidad Editorial|access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref>

After coming to power, King [[Alfonso IX]], facing an attack by his two neighbors, [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]] and [[Portugal]], decided to summon his [[curia regis|royal council]] ({{langx|la|curia regis}}). This was a medieval organization composed of aristocrats and bishops but because of the seriousness of the situation and the need to maximize political support, Alfonso IX took the decision to also call the representatives of the urban middle class from the most important cities of the kingdom to the assembly.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/mow/nomination_forms/spain_decreta_of_leon.pdf |title=International Memory of the World Register [Nomination form] – The Decreta of León of 1188 – The oldest documentary manifestation of the European parliamentary system|author=Spain|date=February 2012|access-date=21 May 2016}}</ref> León's Cortes dealt with matters like the right to [[private property]], the inviolability of domicile, the right to appeal to justice opposite the King and the obligation of the King to consult the Cortes before entering a war.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.interun.ru/ss/interun/u/files/charterv_e.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304070224/http://www.interun.ru/ss/interun/u/files/charterv_e.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 March 2016|title=The Leones parliament of 1188: The first parliament of the western world (The Magna Carta of Alfonso IX)|author=Catedrático de la Universidad Estatal de León López González, Hermenegildo; Catedrático de la Universidad Internacional en Moscú Raytarovskiy, V.V.|access-date=21 May 2016}}</ref> Prelates, nobles, and commoners met separately in the three estates of the Cortes. In this meeting, new laws were approved to protect commoners against the arbitrarities of nobles, prelates, and the king. This important set of laws is known as the {{lang|la|Carta Magna Leonesa}}.

Following this event, new Cortes would appear in the other different territories that would make up Spain: [[Principality of Catalonia]] in 1192, the [[Kingdom of Castile]] in 1250, [[Kingdom of Aragon]] in 1274, [[Kingdom of Valencia]] in 1283 and [[Kingdom of Navarre]] in 1300.

After the union of the Kingdoms of Leon and Castile under the [[Crown of Castile]], their Cortes were united as well in 1258. The Castilian Cortes had representatives from Burgos, Toledo, León, Seville, Córdoba, Murcia, Jaén, Zamora, Segovia, Ávila, Salamanca, Cuenca, Toro, Valladolid, Soria, Madrid, Guadalajara and Granada (after 1492).  The Cortes' assent was required to pass new taxes, and could also advise the king on other matters.  The [[Revolt of the Comuneros|comunero rebels]] intended a stronger role for the Cortes, but were defeated by the forces of [[Habsburg Spain|Habsburg]] Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] in 1521.  The Cortes maintained some power, however, though it became more of a consultative entity.  However, by the time of [[Philip II of Spain|King Philip II]], Charles's son, the Castilian Cortes had come under functionally complete royal control, with its delegates dependent on the Crown for their income.<ref>{{cite book |last=Haliczer |first=Stephen |author-link=Stephen Haliczer |title=The Comuneros of Castile: The Forging of a Revolution, 1475–1521 |year=1981 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |location=Madison, Wisconsin |page=227 |isbn=0-299-08500-7 |ref=Hal81 }}</ref>

The Cortes of the [[Crown of Aragon]] kingdoms retained their power to control the king's spending with regard to the finances of those kingdoms. But after the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] and the victory of another royal house – the [[House of Bourbon|Bourbons]] – and King [[Philip V of Spain|Philip V]], their Cortes were suppressed (those of [[Aragon]] and [[Valencia, Spain|Valencia]] in 1707, and those of [[Catalonia]] and the [[Balearic islands]] in 1714).

The first Cortes representing the whole of Spain (and the Spanish empire of the day) assembled in 1812, in [[Cadiz]], where it operated as a government in exile as at that time most of the rest of Spain was in the hands of [[Napoleon]]'s army.

===Switzerland===
The [[Federal Diet of Switzerland]] was one of the longest-lived representative bodies in history, continuing from the 13th century to 1848.

===Ukraine===
{{main|Verkhovna Rada}}
Stemming from the tribal assemblies of the ancient Slavs, the ''viche'' (from Proto-Slavonic *větje, meaning 'council', 'counsel' or 'talk') functioned not only as a form of self-organization in cities of medieval [[Kievan Rusʹ]] but also as a form of protect against policies of the Princes.<ref>Yermolaiev, V. (2002). Viche in Kievan Rus: issues of competence (9th – middle of the 12th century). Bulletin of the Academy of Legal Sciences of Ukraine, No. 4, pp. 45–55. [In Ukrainian]</ref> The tradition of viche contributed to the culture of peaceful assemblies in contemporary Ukraine.<ref>Drozd, O., Romanov, M., Moroz, V., Stremenovskyi, S., & Zelenyi, V. (2022). The right of citizens to assemble peacefully, unarmed, to hold rallies and demonstrations: historical origins and genesis of formation. Amazonia Investiga, 11(51), 257-266. https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2022.51.03.26</ref><ref>Emmanuel Karagiannis (2016) Ukrainian volunteer fighters in the eastern front: ideas, political-social norms and emotions as mobilization mechanisms, Southeast European and Black Sea Studies, 16:1, 139-153, DOI: 10.1080/14683857.2016.1148413</ref>
    
The [[Sich Rada]] (council) was an institution of [[Zaporizhian Cossacks|Cossack administration]] from the 16th to the 18th century. With the establishment of the [[Cossack Hetmanate]] in 1648, it was officially known as the General Military Council, or [[Cossack Rada]], until 1750.

The [[Central Council of Ukraine]], or the Central Rada, founded on March 4, 1917, was the All-Ukrainian council of the [[Ukrainian People's Republic]], which declared its full state independence in the [[Fourth Universal of the Ukrainian Central Council]] in 1918. The contemporary Ukrainian parliament is called the [[Verkhovna Rada]] of Ukraine.