Editing Panama (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of Panama}}

===Pre-Columbian<!-- This is NOT a typo. Before Christopher Columbus, not before Colombia --> period===
[[File:Panama Embera0605.jpg|thumb|[[Embera-Wounaan|Embera]] girl dressed for a dance]]
The [[Isthmus of Panama]] was formed about three&nbsp;million years ago when the land bridge between North and South America finally became complete, and plants and animals gradually crossed it in both directions. The existence of the [[isthmus]] affected the dispersal of people, agriculture and technology throughout the American continent from the appearance of the first hunters and collectors to the era of villages and cities.<ref name="Mayo, J 2004">Mayo, J. (2004). ''La Industria prehispánica de conchas marinas en Gran Coclé'', Panamá. Diss. U Complutense de Madrid, pp. 9–10.</ref><ref>Piperno, D. R. (1984). ''The Application of Phytolith Analysis to the Reconstruction of Plant Subsistence and Environments in Prehistoric Panama''. Dissertation, Temple University. Philadelphia, vol. 8 pp. 21–43.</ref>

The earliest discovered artifacts of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous peoples]] in Panama include [[Paleo-Indians|Paleo-Indian]] [[projectile point]]s. Later central Panama was home to some of the first [[pottery]]-making in the Americas, for example the cultures at [[Monagrillo (archaeological site)|Monagrillo]], which date back to 2500–1700 BC. These evolved into significant populations best known through their spectacular burials (dating to c. 500–900 AD) at the [[Monagrillo (archaeological site)|Monagrillo]] [[archaeological site]], and their [[Gran Coclé]] style [[polychrome pottery]]. The monumental [[monolith]]ic sculptures at the [[Barriles]] (Chiriqui) site are also important traces of these ancient isthmian cultures.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Exhibition |url=https://researchcomputing.si.edu/exhibitions/stri.php?node=Archaeology_si_2774306 |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=researchcomputing.si.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Treasures of Sitio Conte and Personal Adornment of the Coclé {{!}} Fashion History Timeline |url=https://fashionhistory.fitnyc.edu/sitio-conte-cocle/ |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=fashionhistory.fitnyc.edu}}</ref>

Before Europeans arrived Panama was widely settled by [[Chibchan languages|Chibchan]], [[Chocoan]], and [[Cueva people|Cueva]] peoples. The largest group were the Cueva (whose specific language affiliation is poorly documented). The size of the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous]] population of the isthmus at the time of European colonization is uncertain. Estimates range as high as two million people, but more recent studies place that number closer to 200,000. Archaeological finds and testimonials by early European explorers describe diverse native isthmian groups exhibiting cultural variety and suggesting people developed{{clarify|date=August 2016|reason=Is this an anthropological term?}} by regular regional routes of commerce. [[Austronesians]] had a trade network to Panama as there is evidence of [[coconuts]] reaching the Pacific coast of Panama from the [[Philippines]] in [[Columbian Exchange|Precolumbian]] times.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Baudouin |first1=Luc |last2=Gunn |first2=Bee |last3=Olsen |first3=Kenneth |date=January 2014 |title=The presence of coconut in southern Panama in pre-Columbian times: clearing up the confusion |journal=Annals of Botany |volume=113 |issue=1 |pages=1–5 |doi=10.1093/aob/mct244 |pmid=24227445 |pmc=3864718  | issn=0305-7364 }}</ref>

When Panama was colonized, the indigenous peoples fled into the forest and nearby islands. Scholars believe that [[Infection|infectious disease]] was the primary cause of the population decline of American natives. The indigenous peoples had no [[Adaptive immune system|acquired immunity]] to diseases such as [[smallpox]] which had been chronic in [[Eurasia]]n populations for centuries.<ref>Hays, J. N. (2005). ''[https://archive.org/details/epidemicspandemi0000hays/page/82 Epidemics and pandemics: their impacts on human history]'', ABC-CLIO, pp. 82–83, {{ISBN|1-85109-658-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last = Austin Alchon |first = Suzanne |title = A pest in the land: new world epidemics in a global perspective |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YiHHnV08ebkC&pg=PA67 |publisher = University of New Mexico Press |date= 2003 |pages = 67–74 |isbn = 0-8263-2871-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Why Blame Smallpox? The Death of the Inca Huayna Capac and the Demographic Destruction of Ancient Peru (Tawantinsuyu) |url=https://users.pop.umn.edu/~rmccaa/aha2004/whypox.htm? |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=users.pop.umn.edu}}</ref>

===Conquest to 1799===
[[File:Balboa südsee.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Vasco Núñez de Balboa]], a recognized and popular figure of Panamanian history]]
[[File:New Caledonia in Darien.jpg|thumb|"New Caledonia", the ill-fated Scottish [[Darien scheme]] colony in the Bay of Caledonia, west of the [[Gulf of Darién]]]]
[[Rodrigo de Bastidas]] sailed westward from [[Venezuela]] in 1501 in search of gold, and became the first European to explore the isthmus of Panama. A year later, [[Christopher Columbus]] visited the isthmus, and established a short-lived settlement in the province of [[Darién Province|Darien]].<ref>Bushnell, David, Woodward, Ralph Lee. "Central America". Encyclopedia Britannica, 7 May. 2025, https://www.britannica.com/place/Central-America. Accessed 8 May 2025</ref> [[Vasco Núñez de Balboa]]'s tortuous trek from the Atlantic to the Pacific in 1513 demonstrated that the isthmus was indeed the path between the seas, and Panama quickly became the crossroads and marketplace of Spain's empire in the [[New World]].<ref>Keen, Benjamin. "Vasco Núñez de Balboa". Encyclopedia Britannica, 8 Jan. 2025, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Vasco-Nunez-de-Balboa. Accessed 8 May 2025</ref> King [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand II]] assigned [[Pedro Arias Dávila]] as Royal Governor. He arrived in June 1514 with 19 vessels and 1,500 men. In 1519, Dávila founded [[Panama City]].<ref name=":4">{{cite web|title=Pedro Arias Dávila|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pedro-Arias-Davila|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=April 4, 2021|archive-date=April 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415203557/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pedro-Arias-Davila|url-status=live}}</ref> Gold and silver were brought by ship from South America, hauled across the isthmus, and loaded aboard ships for Spain. The route became known as the Camino Real, or Royal Road, although it was more commonly known as Camino de Cruces (Road of Crosses) because of the number of gravesites along the way.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Heller |first=Carolyn |date=2025-03-31 |title=Hiking the Camino Real de Panamá, a Historic Sea-to-Sea Trade Route |url=https://www.cntraveler.com/story/hiking-the-camino-real-de-panama |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=Condé Nast Traveler |language=en-US}}</ref> At 1520 the Genoese controlled the port of Panama. The Genoese obtained a concession from the Spanish to exploit the port of Panama mainly for the slave trade, until the destruction of the primeval city in 1671.<ref name="Genoa">{{Cite web |title=I Genovesi d'Oltremare i primi coloni moderni |url=http://www.giustiniani.info/oltremare.html |access-date=2020-08-05 |website=www.giustiniani.info |archive-date=2020-02-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223140429/http://www.giustiniani.info/oltremare.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=15. Casa de los Genoveses - Patronato Panamá Viejo |url=http://www.patronatopanamaviejo.org/ppv2014/es/el-sitio-arqueologico/los-monumentos/mapa-de-monumentos/15-casa-de-los-genoveses |access-date=2020-08-05 |website=www.patronatopanamaviejo.org |archive-date=2017-09-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911025455/http://www.patronatopanamaviejo.org/ppv2014/es/el-sitio-arqueologico/los-monumentos/mapa-de-monumentos/15-casa-de-los-genoveses }}</ref> In the meantime in 1635 Don [[Sebastián Hurtado de Corcuera]], the then governor of Panama, had recruited [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]], Peruvians, and Panamanians, as soldiers to wage war against Muslims in the Philippines and to found the city [[Zamboanga City|of Zamboanga]].<ref>[http://www.zamboanga.com/html/history_1634_moro_attacks.htm "SECOND BOOK OF THE SECOND PART OF THE CONQUESTS OF THE FILIPINAS ISLANDS, AND CHRONICLE OF THE RELIGIOUS OF OUR FATHER, ST. AUGUSTINE"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508103044/https://www.zamboanga.com/html/history_1634_moro_attacks.htm |date=May 8, 2021 }} (Zamboanga City History)
"He (Governor Don Sebastían Hurtado de Corcuera) brought a great reënforcements of soldiers, many of them from Perú, as he made his voyage to Acapulco from that kingdom."</ref>

Panama was under [[Spanish Empire|Spanish rule]] for almost 300 years (1538–1821), and became part of the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]], along with all other Spanish possessions in South America. From the outset, Panamanian identity was based on a sense of "geographic destiny", and Panamanian fortunes fluctuated with the geopolitical importance of the isthmus. The colonial experience spawned Panamanian nationalism and a racially complex and highly stratified society, the source of internal conflicts that ran counter to the unifying force of nationalism.<ref>{{Cite book|title=La inmigración prohibida en Panamá y sus prejuicios raciales|last=Arango Durling |trans-title=Prohibited immigration in Panamá and its racial prejudices |first=Virginia |publisher=Publipan |date=1999 |lccn=2001388757 |location=Panamá  |language=es }}</ref>

Spanish authorities had little control over much of the territory of Panama. Large sections managed to resist conquest and missionization until late in the colonial era. Because of this, indigenous people of the area were often referred to as "indios de guerra" (war Indians). However, Panama was important to Spain strategically because it was the easiest way to ship silver mined in Peru to Europe. Silver cargoes were landed on the west coast of Panama and then taken overland to [[Portobelo, Colón|Portobello]] or [[Nombre de Dios, Colón|Nombre de Dios]] on the Caribbean side of the isthmus for further shipment. Aside from the European route, there was also an Asian-American route, which led to traders and adventurers carrying silver from [[Peru]] going over land through Panama to reach Acapulco, Mexico before sailing to Manila, Philippines using the famed [[Manila galleon]]s.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/44625493/Connecting_China_with_the_Pacific_World Connecting China with the Pacific World By Angela Schottenhammer] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210527045556/https://www.academia.edu/44625493/Connecting_China_with_the_Pacific_World |date=May 27, 2021 }}(2019) (Page 144–145)</ref> In 1579, the royal monopoly that Acapulco, Mexico had on trading with Manila, Philippines was relaxed and Panama was assigned as another port that was able to trade directly with Asia.<ref name="Fisher1997">{{cite book|author=John Robert Fisher|title=The Economic Aspects of Spanish Imperialism in America, 1492-1810|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MRI-LiWuJh4C&pg=PA65|date=1997|publisher=Liverpool University Press|isbn=978-0-85323-552-1|pages=65–66}}</ref>

Because of incomplete Spanish control, the Panama route was vulnerable to attack from pirates (mostly Dutch and English), and from "new world" Africans called [[cimarron people (Panama)|cimarrons]] who had freed themselves from enslavement and lived in communes or ''palenques'' around the Camino Real in Panama's Interior, and on some of the islands off Panama's Pacific coast. One such famous community amounted to a small kingdom under [[Bayano]], which emerged in the 1552 to 1558 period. Sir [[Francis Drake]]'s famous raids on Panama in 1572–73 and [[John Oxenham]]'s crossing to the Pacific Ocean were aided by Panama cimarrons, and Spanish authorities were only able to bring them under control by making an alliance with them that guaranteed their freedom in exchange for military support in 1582.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pike |first= Ruth |title=Black Rebels: Cimarrons in Sixteenth Century Panama|journal=The Americas|volume= 64|issue=2 |date=2007|pages= 243–66|doi=10.1353/tam.2007.0161|s2cid=143773521}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Panama History |url=https://www.soulofamerica.com/international/panama/panama-history/ |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=Soul Of America |language=en-US}}</ref>

The following elements helped define a distinctive sense of autonomy and of regional or national identity within Panama well before the rest of the colonies: the prosperity enjoyed during the first two centuries (1540–1740) while contributing to colonial growth; the placing of extensive regional judicial authority (Real Audiencia) as part of its jurisdiction; and the pivotal role it played at the height of the Spanish Empire – the first modern global empire.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Antique Map - Anonymus - Ansichten von der Landenge von Panama |url=https://www.asommer.de/en/karte/ansichten-von-der-landenge-von-panama/ |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=Antique Maps Adina Sommer |language=en-US}}</ref>

Panama was the site of the ill-fated [[Darien scheme]], which set up a [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scottish]] colony in the region in 1698.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Darien Scheme |url=https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofScotland/The-Darien-Scheme/ |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=Historic UK |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Darien Scheme: Scotland's ill-fated colony in Panama |url=https://trulyedinburgh.com/scotland-history/darien-scheme/ |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=Truly Edinburgh |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Founding of the Darien Colony {{!}} History Today |url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/founding-darien-colony |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=www.historytoday.com}}</ref> This failed for a number of reasons, and the ensuing debt contributed to the [[Acts of Union 1707|union of England and Scotland in 1707]].<ref>"[http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/Scotland-History/DarienScheme.htm The Darien Scheme – The Fall of Scotland] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205194052/http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/Scotland-History/DarienScheme.htm |date=February 5, 2012 }}", Historic UK</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Carroll |first=Rory |date=2007-09-10 |title=The sorry story of how Scotland lost its 17th century empire |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2007/sep/11/britishidentity.past |access-date=2025-05-08 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

In 1671, the [[privateer]] [[Henry Morgan]], licensed by the English government, [[Henry Morgan's Panama expedition|sacked and burned]] the city of [[Panamá Viejo|Panama]] – the second most important city in the Spanish New World at the time. In 1717 the [[viceroyalty of New Granada]] (northern South America) was created in response to other Europeans trying to take Spanish territory in the Caribbean region. The Isthmus of Panama was placed under its jurisdiction. However, the remoteness of New Granada's capital, [[Santa Fe de Bogotá]] (the modern capital of [[Colombia]]) proved a greater obstacle than the Spanish crown anticipated as the authority of New Granada was contested by the seniority, closer proximity, and previous ties to the [[viceroyalty of Peru]] and even by Panama's own initiative. This uneasy relationship between Panama and Bogotá would persist for centuries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Legendary Captain Morgan Raids Panama |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/captain-morgan-and-sack-of-panama-2136368 |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=ThoughtCo |language=en}}</ref><ref>The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Viceroyalty of New Granada". Encyclopedia Britannica, 1 May. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/place/Viceroyalty-of-New-Granada. Accessed 8 May 2025.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=New Granada, Viceroyalty of {{!}} Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/new-granada-viceroyalty |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref>

In 1744, Bishop Francisco Javier de Luna Victoria DeCastro established the [[College of San Ignacio de Loyola]] and on June 3, 1749, founded La Real y Pontificia Universidad de San Javier.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=La universidad en la colonia |url=https://www.metrolibre.com/opinion/la-universidad-en-la-colonia-LBML221192 |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=www.metrolibre.com |language=es-PA}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Jesuits in Panama |url=https://www.manresa-sj.org/stamps/2_Panama.htm |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=www.manresa-sj.org}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=Bishop Francisco Javier de Luna Victoria y Castro [Catholic-Hierarchy] |url=https://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bdeluna.html |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=www.catholic-hierarchy.org}}</ref> By this time, however, Panama's importance and influence had become insignificant as Spain's power dwindled in Europe and advances in navigation technique increasingly permitted ships to round [[Cape Horn]] in order to reach the Pacific. While the Panama route was short it was also labor-intensive and expensive because of the loading and unloading and laden-down trek required to get from the one coast to the other.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" />

====1800s====
{{More sources|section|date=May 2025}}[[File:Arco chato.jpg|thumb|[[Santo Domingo Church]]]]
As the [[Spanish American wars of independence]] were heating up all across Latin America, Panama City was preparing for independence; however, their plans were accelerated by the unilateral Grito de La Villa de Los Santos (Cry From the Town of Saints), issued on November 10, 1821, by the residents of [[Azuero Peninsula|Azuero]] without backing from Panama City to declare their separation from the Spanish Empire. In both [[Veraguas]] and the capital this act was met with disdain, although on differing levels. To Veraguas, it was the ultimate act of treason, while to the capital, it was seen as inefficient and irregular, and furthermore forced them to accelerate their plans.

Nevertheless, the Grito was a sign, on the part of the residents of Azuero, of their antagonism toward the independence movement in the capital. Those in the capital region in turn regarded the Azueran movement with contempt, since the separatists in Panama City believed that their counterparts in Azuero were fighting not only for independence from Spain, but also for their right to self-rule apart from Panama City once the Spaniards were gone.

It was seen as a risky move on the part of Azuero, which lived in fear of Colonel [[History of Panama#José de Fábrega|José Pedro Antonio de Fábrega y de las Cuevas]] (1774–1841). The colonel was a staunch loyalist and had all of the isthmus' military supplies in his hands. They feared quick retaliation and swift retribution against the separatists.

What they had counted on, however, was the influence of the separatists in the capital. Ever since October 1821, when the former Governor General, [[Juan de la Cruz Mourgeón|Juan de la Cruz Murgeón]], left the isthmus on a campaign in [[Quito]] and left a colonel in charge, the separatists had been slowly converting Fábrega to the separatist side. So, by November 10, Fábrega was now a supporter of the independence movement. Soon after the separatist declaration of Los Santos, Fábrega convened every organization in the capital with separatist interests and formally declared the city's support for independence. No military repercussions occurred because of skillful bribing of royalist troops.

===Post-colonial Panama===
[[File:Panama canal cartooon 1903.jpg|thumb|1903 political cartoon. The US government, working with separatists in Panama, engineered a [[Separation of Panama from Colombia|Panamanian declaration of independence]] from [[Colombia]], then sent US warships and marines to Panama to prevent Colombian intervention.<ref name="countrystudies"/>]]
{{See also|Separation of Panama from Colombia|Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty|History of Panama (1964–1977)}}
[[File:Roosevelt and the Canal.JPG|thumb|US President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] sitting on a steam shovel at the Panama Canal, 1906]]
In the 80 years following independence from Spain, Panama was a [[Subdivisions of Gran Colombia|subdivision of Gran Colombia]], after voluntarily joining the country at the end of 1821. It then became part of the [[Republic of New Granada]] in 1831 and was divided into several [[Provinces of the Republic of New Granada|provinces]]. In 1855, the autonomous [[Panama State|State of Panama]] was created within the Republic out of the New Granada provinces of Panama, Azuero, Chiriquí, and Veraguas. It continued as a state in the [[Granadine Confederation]] (1858–1863) and [[United States of Colombia]] (1863–1886). The [[Colombian Constitution of 1886|1886 constitution]] of the modern Republic of [[Colombia]] created a [[Panama Department (1886)|new Panama Department]].

The people of the isthmus made over 80 attempts to secede from Colombia. They came close to success in 1831, then again during the [[Thousand Days' War]] of 1899–1902, understood among indigenous Panamanians as a struggle for land rights under the leadership of Victoriano Lorenzo.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Müller-Schwarze|first1=Nina K.|title=The Blood of Victoriano Lorenzo: An Ethnography of the Cholos of Northern Coclé Province.|date=2015|publisher=McFarland Press|location=Jefferson, North Carolina}}</ref>

The US intent to influence the area, especially the Panama Canal's construction and control, led to the [[secession of Panama from Colombia]] in 1903 and its political independence. When the [[Senate of Colombia]] rejected the [[Hay–Herrán Treaty]] on January 22, 1903, the United States decided to support and encourage the Panamanian secessionist movement.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.banrepcultural.org/node/86421 |title=Separación de Panamá: la historia desconocida |publisher=banrepcultural.org |access-date=April 9, 2016 |archive-date=January 16, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180116174922/http://www.banrepcultural.org/node/86421 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="countrystudies">{{cite web|date = 2009|url = http://countrystudies.us/panama/8.htm|title = The 1903 Treaty and Qualified Independence|publisher = [[US Library of Congress]]|access-date = May 1, 2009|archive-date = October 11, 2011|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111011225556/http://countrystudies.us/panama/8.htm|url-status = live}}</ref>

In November 1903, Panama, tacitly supported by the United States, proclaimed its independence<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.banrepcultural.org/blaavirtual/revistas/credencial/junio2004/panama%20ultimo.htm |title=Panamá: el último año |publisher=banrepcultural.org |access-date=April 9, 2016 |archive-date=October 9, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009021454/http://www.banrepcultural.org/blaavirtual/revistas/credencial/junio2004/panama%20ultimo.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> and concluded the [[Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty]] with the United States without the presence of a single Panamanian. [[Philippe Bunau-Varilla]], a French engineer and lobbyist represented Panama even though Panama's president and a delegation had arrived in New York to negotiate the treaty.  Bunau-Varilla was a shareholder in a French company (the ''Compagnie Nouvelle du Canal de Panama''), which had acquired the rights of the original French company which had gone bankrupt in 1889.{{sfn|McCullough|1977|pp=276-282}} The treaty was quickly drafted and signed the night before the Panamanian delegation arrived in Washington. The treaty granted rights to the United States "as if it were sovereign" in a [[Panama Canal Zone|zone]] roughly {{convert|10|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} wide and {{convert|50|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} long. In that zone, the US would build a canal, then administer, fortify, and defend it "in perpetuity".

[[File:Panama Canal under construction, 1907.jpg|thumb|Construction work on the [[Gaillard Cut]] of the Panama Canal, 1907]]

In 1914, the United States completed the existing {{convert|83|km||adj=mid|abbr=off|-long|sp=us}} canal.

Because of the strategic importance of the canal during [[World War II]], the US extensively fortified access to it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Security and Defense of the Panama Canal, 1903-2000 |url=https://ufdc.ufl.edu/AA00047733/00001 |access-date=2025-01-30 |website=ufdc.ufl.edu |archive-date=January 30, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250130202844/https://ufdc.ufl.edu/AA00047733/00001 |url-status=live }}</ref>

From 1903 to 1968, Panama was a [[constitutional democracy]] dominated by a commercially oriented [[oligarchy]]. During the 1950s, the Panamanian military began to challenge the oligarchy's political hegemony. The early 1960s saw also the beginning of sustained pressure in Panama for the renegotiation of the [[Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty]], including riots that broke out in early 1964, resulting in widespread looting and dozens of deaths, and the evacuation of the American embassy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://adst.org/2016/07/panama-riots-1964-beginning-end-canal/|title=The Panama Riots of 1964: The Beginning of the End for the Canal|date=July 19, 2016|access-date=November 12, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113025549/https://adst.org/2016/07/panama-riots-1964-beginning-end-canal/|archive-date=November 13, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Amid negotiations for the Robles–Johnson treaty, Panama held [[1968 Panamanian general election|elections in 1968]]. The candidates were:<ref name="Pizzurno Gelós 1989">Pizzurno Gelós, Patricia and Celestino Andrés Araúz (1996) ''Estudios sobre el Panamá Republicano (1903–1989)''. Colombia: Manfer S.A.</ref>
* Dr. [[Arnulfo Arias]] Madrid, Unión Nacional (National Union)
* Antonio González Revilla, [[People's Party (Panama)|Democracia Cristiana]] (Christian Democrats)
* Engr. David Samudio, Alianza del Pueblo (People's Alliance), who had the government's support.

Arias Madrid was declared the winner of elections that were marked by violence and accusations of fraud against Alianza del Pueblo. On October 1, 1968, Arias Madrid took office as president of Panama, promising to lead a government of "national union" that would end the reigning corruption and pave the way for a new Panama. A week and a half later, on October 11, 1968, the National Guard (Guardia Nacional) [[1968 Panamanian coup d'état|ousted]] Arias and initiated the downward spiral that would culminate with the United States' invasion in 1989. Arias, who had promised to respect the hierarchy of the National Guard, broke the pact and started a large restructuring of the Guard. To preserve the Guard's and his vested interests, Lieutenant Colonel [[Omar Torrijos]] Herrera and Major Boris Martínez commanded another military coup against the government.<ref name="Pizzurno Gelós 1989"/>

The military justified itself by declaring that Arias Madrid was trying to install a dictatorship, and promised a return to constitutional rule. In the meantime, the Guard began a series of populist measures that would gain support for the coup. Among them were:
* Price freezing on food, medicine and other goods<ref>Pizzurno Gelós, Patricia and Celestino Andrés Araúz (1996) ''Estudios sobre el Panamá Republicano (1903–1989)''. Colombia: Manfer S.A., p. 529.</ref> until January 31, 1969
* rent level freeze
* legalization of the permanence of squatting families in boroughs surrounding the historic site of Panama Viejo<ref name="Pizzurno Gelós 1989"/>
Parallel to this, the military began a policy of repression against the opposition, who were labeled communists. The military appointed a Provisional Government Junta that was to arrange new elections. However, the National Guard would prove to be very reluctant to abandon power and soon began calling itself ''El Gobierno Revolucionario'' (The Revolutionary Government).

====Post-1970====
[[File:Omar Torrijos with Panamanian farmers.jpg|thumb|[[Omar Torrijos]] (right) with farmers in the Panamanian countryside. The Torrijos government was well known for its policies of [[land redistribution]].]]

Under [[Omar Torrijos]]'s control, the military transformed the political and economic structure of the country, initiating massive coverage of social security services and expanding public education.

The constitution was changed in 1972. To reform the constitution, the military created a new organization, the Assembly of Corregimiento Representatives, which replaced the National Assembly. The new assembly, also known as the Poder Popular (Power of the People), was composed of 505 members selected by the military with no participation from political parties, which the military had eliminated. The new constitution proclaimed [[Omar Torrijos]] as the Maximum Leader of the Panamanian Revolution, and conceded him unlimited power for six years, although, to keep a façade of constitutionality, [[Demetrio B. Lakas]] was appointed president for the same period.<ref name="Pizzurno Gelós 1989"/>

In 1981, Torrijos died in a plane crash.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/08/02/obituaries/panama-leader-killed-in-crash-in-bad-weather.html|title=PANAMA LEADER KILLED IN CRASH IN BAD WEATHER|last=International|first=United Press|work=The New York Times|date=August 2, 1981|access-date=June 1, 2018|language=en|archive-date=August 17, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817120658/https://www.nytimes.com/1981/08/02/obituaries/panama-leader-killed-in-crash-in-bad-weather.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Torrijos' death altered the tone of Panama's political evolution. Despite the [[1983 Panamanian constitutional referendum|1983 constitutional amendments]] which proscribed a political role for the military, the [[Panama Defense Forces|Panama Defense Force]] (PDF), as they were then known, continued to dominate Panamanian political life. By this time, General [[Manuel Noriega|Manuel Antonio Noriega]] was firmly in control of both the PDF and the civilian government.{{when|date=May 2016}}

[[File:Jimmy Carter and General Omar Torrijos signing the Panama Canal Treaty.jpg|thumb|US President [[Jimmy Carter]] shakes hands with General [[Omar Torrijos]] after signing the [[Torrijos–Carter Treaties|Panama Canal Treaties]] (September 7, 1977).]]
In the [[1984 Panamanian general election|1984 elections]], the candidates were:
* [[Nicolás Ardito Barletta Vallarino]], supported by the military in a union called UNADE
* Arnulfo Arias Madrid, for the opposition union ADO
* ex-General [[Rubén Darío Paredes]], who had been forced to an early retirement by Manuel Noriega, running for the Partido Nacionalista Popular (PAP; "Popular Nationalist Party")
* Carlos Iván Zúñiga, running for the Partido Acción Popular (PAPO; Popular Action Party)
Barletta was declared the winner of elections that had been considered to be fraudulent. Barletta inherited a country in economic ruin and hugely indebted to the [[International Monetary Fund]] and the [[World Bank]]. Amid the economic crisis and Barletta's efforts to calm the country's creditors, street protests arose, and so did military repression.

Meanwhile, Noriega's regime had fostered a well-hidden criminal economy that operated as a parallel source of income for the military and their allies, providing revenues from drugs and [[money laundering]]. Toward the end of the military dictatorship, a new wave of Chinese migrants arrived on the isthmus in the hope of migrating to the United States. The smuggling of Chinese became an enormous business, with revenues of up to 200 million dollars for Noriega's regime (see Mon 167).<ref>Mon Pinzón, Ramón Arturo (1979). ''Historia de la Migración China Durante la Construcción del Ferrocarril de Panamá''. Masters Thesis. México: El Colegio de México.</ref>

The military dictatorship assassinated or tortured more than one hundred Panamanians and forced at least a hundred more dissidents into exile. (see Zárate 15).<ref>Zárate, Abdiel (November 9, 2003). "Muertos y desaparecidos durante la época militar." Extra-centennial issue of ''La Prensa''.</ref> Noriega's regime was supported by the United States and it began playing a double role in Central America. While the [[Contadora group]], an initiative launched by the foreign ministers of various Latin American nations including Panama's, conducted diplomatic efforts to achieve peace in the region, Noriega supplied Nicaraguan [[Contras]] and other guerrillas in the region with weapons and ammunition on behalf of the CIA.<ref name="Pizzurno Gelós 1989"/>

On June 6, 1987, the recently retired Colonel Roberto Díaz Herrera, resentful that Noriega had broken the agreed-upon "Torrijos Plan" of succession that would have made him the chief of the military after Noriega, decided to denounce the regime. He revealed details of electoral fraud,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Preston |first=Julia |date=July 6, 1987 |title=PANAMANIAN PRESIDENT CALLS FOR PROBE |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1987/07/06/panamanian-president-calls-for-probe/34559ca5-6139-4669-8ff5-dcd056b9b7ca/ |access-date=March 22, 2022 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> accused Noriega of planning Torrijos's death and declared that Torrijos had received 12 million dollars from the Shah of Iran for giving the exiled Iranian leader asylum. He also accused Noriega of the assassination by decapitation of then-opposition leader, Dr. [[Hugo Spadafora]].<ref name="Pizzurno Gelós 1989"/><ref>{{Cite news |date=December 21, 1989 |title=Fighting in Panama; Panama's Troubled Past |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/12/21/world/fighting-in-panama-panama-s-troubled-past.html |access-date=March 22, 2022 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=March 22, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322030333/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/12/21/world/fighting-in-panama-panama-s-troubled-past.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

On the night of June 9, 1987, the Cruzada Civilista ("Civic Crusade") was created{{where|date=May 2016}} and began organizing actions of civil disobedience. The Crusade called for a general strike. In response, the military suspended constitutional rights and declared a state of emergency in the country. On July 10, the [[Civic Crusade]] called for a massive demonstration that was violently repressed by the "Dobermans", the military's special riot control unit. That day, later known as El Viernes Negro ("Black Friday"), left many people injured and killed.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Becker |first=Meghan |date=March 28, 2010 |title=Panamanians campaign to overthrow dictator (The Civic Crusade), 1987-1989 |url=https://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/content/panamanians-campaign-overthrow-dictator-civic-crusade-1987-1989 |access-date=April 30, 2022 |website=Swarthmore.edu |publisher=Swarthmore |archive-date=May 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513215929/https://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/content/panamanians-campaign-overthrow-dictator-civic-crusade-1987-1989 |url-status=live }}</ref>

United States President [[Ronald Reagan]] began a series of sanctions against the military regime. The United States froze economic and military assistance to Panama in the middle of 1987 in response to the domestic political crisis in Panama and an attack on the US embassy. The sanctions failed to oust Noriega, but severely hurt Panama's economy. Panama's gross domestic product (GDP) declined almost 25 percent between 1987 and 1989.<ref name="Acosta, Coleen 2008">Acosta, Coleen (October 24, 2008). [https://web.stanford.edu/class/e297a/Panama%20Imperialism%20and%20Struggle.htm "Iraq: a Lesson from Panama Imperialism and Struggle for Sovereignty"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003220042/https://web.stanford.edu/class/e297a/Panama%20Imperialism%20and%20Struggle.htm |date=October 3, 2021 }}. ''Journals of the Stanford Course on Prejudice and Poverty''.</ref>

On February 5, 1988, General Manuel Antonio Noriega was accused of drug trafficking by federal juries in Tampa and Miami. [[Human Rights Watch]] wrote in its 1989 report: "Washington turned a blind eye to abuses in Panama for many years until concern over drug trafficking prompted indictments of the general [Noriega] by two grand juries in Florida in February 1988".<ref name="Panama">[https://www.hrw.org/reports/1989/WR89/Panama.htm "Panama"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113164637/https://www.hrw.org/reports/1989/WR89/Panama.htm |date=January 13, 2017 }}. ''Human Rights Watch World Report 1989''. hrw.org</ref>

In April 1988, US President Ronald Reagan invoked the [[International Emergency Economic Powers Act]], freezing Panamanian government assets in all US organizations. In May 1989 Panamanians voted overwhelmingly for the anti-Noriega candidates. The Noriega regime promptly annulled the election and embarked on a new round of repression.

[[File:Panama clashes 1989.JPEG|thumb|The aftermath of urban warfare during the [[United States invasion of Panama|US invasion of Panama]], 1989]]

====US invasion (1989)====
{{Further|United States invasion of Panama}}

The United States invaded Panama on December 20, 1989, codenamed [[Operation Just Cause]]. The U.S. stated the operation was "necessary to safeguard the lives of U.S. citizens in Panama, defend democracy and human rights, combat drug trafficking, and secure the neutrality of the Panama Canal as required by the [[Torrijos–Carter Treaties]]".<ref>''New York Times''. A Transcript of President Bush's Address on the Decision to Use Force, December 21, 1989. Web. January 2, 2008.</ref> The US reported 23 servicemen killed and 324 wounded, with the number of Panamanian soldiers killed estimated at 450. The estimates for civilians killed in the conflict ranges from 200 to 4,000. The United Nations put the Panamanian civilian death toll at 500, [[Americas Watch]] estimated 300, the United States gave a figure of 202 civilians killed and former US attorney general [[Ramsey Clark]] estimated 4,000 deaths.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/04/01/world/panama-and-us-strive-to-settle-on-death-toll.html |title=Panama and U.S. Strive To Settle on Death Toll |last=Rohter |first=Larry |work=The New York Times |date=April 1990 |access-date=April 15, 2018 |archive-date=August 15, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815143126/https://www.nytimes.com/1990/04/01/world/panama-and-us-strive-to-settle-on-death-toll.html |url-status=live }}</ref> It represented the largest United States military operation since the Vietnam War.<ref>Cajar Páez, Aristides. "La invasion." Extra-centennial issue of La Prensa, Nov.9 (2003): 22. Print.</ref> The number of US civilians (and their dependents), who had worked for the [[Panama Canal Authority|Panama Canal Commission]] and the US military, and were killed by the Panamanian Defense Forces, has never been fully disclosed.

On December 29, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] approved a resolution calling the intervention in Panama a "flagrant violation of international law and of the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the States".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/44/a44r240.htm|title=A/RES/44/240. Effects of the military intervention by the United States of America in Panama on the situation in Central America|website=UN.org|access-date=June 29, 2017|archive-date=October 24, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024215048/http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/44/a44r240.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> A similar resolution was vetoed in the [[United Nations Security Council|Security Council]] by the United States, the United Kingdom, and France.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/12/24/world/fighting-panama-united-nations-security-council-condemnation-invasion-vetoed.html|title=Fighting in Panama: United Nations; Security Council Condemnation of Invasion Vetoed|first1=Paul|last1=Lewis|first2=Special to The New York|last2=Times|newspaper=The New York Times|date=December 24, 1989|access-date=February 11, 2017|archive-date=December 8, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161208053954/http://www.nytimes.com/1989/12/24/world/fighting-panama-united-nations-security-council-condemnation-invasion-vetoed.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Noriega was captured and flown to Miami to be tried. The conflict ended on January 31, 1990.

The urban population, many living below the poverty level, was greatly affected by the 1989 intervention. As pointed out in 1995 by a UN Technical Assistance Mission to Panama, the fighting displaced 20,000 people. The most heavily affected district was the [[El Chorrillo]] area of Panama City, where several blocks of apartments were completely destroyed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roatan.com/About-Locations/Panama.pdf|title=Panama |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304103819/http://www.roatan.com/About-Locations/Panama.pdf|archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://topdocumentaryfilms.com/the-panama-deception/|title=The Panama Deception|via=topdocumentaryfilms.com|access-date=May 5, 2019|archive-date=May 5, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505070320/https://topdocumentaryfilms.com/the-panama-deception/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Blum, William. Killing Hope: U.S. Military and C.I.A. Interventions Since World War II -Common Courage Press, 2008.</ref> The economic damage caused by the fighting has been estimated at between 1.5 and 2 billion dollars.<ref name="Acosta, Coleen 2008"/> Most [[Panamanians]] supported the intervention.<ref name="Panama"/><ref>Pastor, Robert A. (2001) ''Exiting the Whirlpool: U.S. Foreign Policy Toward Latin America and the Caribbean'', p. 96, {{ISBN|0813338115}}.</ref>

===Post-intervention era===
Panama's Electoral Tribunal moved quickly to restore civilian constitutional government, reinstated the results of the May 1989 election on December 27, 1989, and confirmed the victory of President [[Guillermo Endara]] and Vice Presidents [[Guillermo Ford]] and [[Ricardo Arias Calderón]].

During its five-year term, the often-fractious government struggled to meet the public's high expectations. Its new police force was a major improvement over its predecessor but was not fully able to deter crime. [[Ernesto Pérez Balladares]] was sworn in as president on September 1, 1994, after an internationally monitored election campaign.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Panama (02/07) |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/panama/80437.htm |access-date=2023-11-15 |website=U.S. Department of State |archive-date=November 15, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231115023048/https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/panama/80437.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

On September 1, 1999, [[Mireya Moscoso]], the widow of former president [[Arnulfo Arias Madrid]], took office after defeating PRD candidate [[Martín Torrijos]], son of [[Omar Torrijos]], in a free and fair election.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/panama/moscoso.htm|title=Moscoso wins victory in Panama's presidential vote|website=LatinAmericanStudies.org|access-date=March 26, 2021|archive-date=October 4, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004215757/http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/panama/moscoso.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/panama/95380.htm|title=Panama (11/07)|publisher=US Department of State|access-date=April 2, 2017|archive-date=April 3, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403111632/https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/panama/95380.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> During her administration, Moscoso attempted to strengthen social programs, especially for child and youth development, protection, and general welfare. Moscoso's administration successfully handled the Panama Canal transfer and was effective in the administration of the Canal.<ref name=":0" />

[[File:Boris Johnson with Juan Carlos Varela in London - 2018 (27232646267).jpg|thumb|British Foreign Secretary [[Boris Johnson]] swapped football shirts with the President of Panama, [[Juan Carlos Varela]] in London, May 14, 2018.]]

The PRD's Martin Torrijos won the presidency and a legislative majority in the National Assembly in 2004.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2004/5/3/martin-torrijos-wins-panama-election|title=Martin Torrijos wins Panama election|website=AlJazeera.com|access-date=March 26, 2021|archive-date=April 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415203743/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2004/5/3/martin-torrijos-wins-panama-election|url-status=live}}</ref> Torrijos ran his campaign on a platform of, among other pledges, a "zero tolerance" for corruption, a problem endemic to the Moscoso and Perez Balladares administrations.<ref name=":2" /> After taking office, Torrijos passed a number of laws which made the government more transparent. He formed a National Anti-Corruption Council whose members represented the highest levels of government and civil society, labor organizations, and religious leadership. In addition, many of his closest Cabinet ministers were non-political [[Technocracy|technocrats]] known for their support for the Torrijos government's anti-corruption aims. Despite the Torrijos administration's public stance on corruption, many high-profile cases,<ref name=":2" /> particularly involving political or business elites, were never acted upon.

Conservative supermarket magnate [[Ricardo Martinelli]] was elected to succeed Martin Torrijos with a landslide victory in the May [[2009 Panamanian general election]]. Martinelli's business credentials drew voters worried by slowing growth during the [[Great Recession]].<ref>{{cite news  |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1229332.stm  |title=Panama Country Profile  |work=[[BBC News]]  |date=June 30, 2010  |access-date=July 25, 2010  |archive-date=July 2, 2014  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702022612/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1229332.stm  |url-status=live  }}</ref> Standing for the four-party opposition Alliance for Change, Martinelli gained 60 percent of the vote, against 37 percent for the candidate of the governing left-wing [[Democratic Revolutionary Party]] (PRD).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dialogo-americas.com/articles/martinelli-wins-panama-presidential-vote/ |title=Martinelli Wins Panama Presidential Vote |publisher=Diálogo Americas |date=May 4, 2009 |access-date=March 26, 2021 |archive-date=April 15, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415203750/https://dialogo-americas.com/articles/martinelli-wins-panama-presidential-vote/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

On May 4, 2014, Vice President [[Juan Carlos Varela]], candidate of the [[Panameñista Party|Partido Panamenista]] (Panamanian Party) won the 2014 [[2014 Panamanian general election|presidential election]] with over 39 percent of the votes, against the party of his former political partner Ricardo Martinelli, Cambio Democrático, and their candidate [[José Domingo Arias]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/former-deputy-varela-wins-panama-presidential-election/a-17612154|title=Former deputy Varela wins Panama presidential election &#124; DW &#124; 05.05.2014|website=DW.COM|access-date=March 26, 2021|archive-date=April 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415213658/https://www.dw.com/en/former-deputy-varela-wins-panama-presidential-election/a-17612154|url-status=live}}</ref> He was sworn in on July 1, 2014.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.caribjournal.com/2014/07/02/juan-carlos-varela-sworn-in-as-new-president-of-panama/|title=Juan Carlos Varela Sworn in As New President of Panama|date=July 2, 2014|website=Caribbean Journal|access-date=March 26, 2021|archive-date=April 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415225743/https://www.caribjournal.com/2014/07/02/juan-carlos-varela-sworn-in-as-new-president-of-panama/|url-status=live}}</ref> On July 1, 2019 [[Laurentino Cortizo]] took possession of the presidency.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.presidencia.gob.pa/Noticias/Presidente-Laurentino-Cortizo-Cohen-posesiona-a-miembros-de-su-Gabinete|title=Presidente Laurentino Cortizo Cohen posesiona a miembros de su Gabinete (Official site)|access-date=July 3, 2019|archive-date=July 3, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703155652/https://www.presidencia.gob.pa/Noticias/Presidente-Laurentino-Cortizo-Cohen-posesiona-a-miembros-de-su-Gabinete|url-status=live}}</ref> Cortizo was the candidate of [[Democratic Revolutionary Party|Democratic Revolution Party]] (PRD) in the May 2019 [[2019 Panamanian general election|presidential election]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-panama-politics-idUSKCN1TW3ZN |title=Panama's new president takes office, pledges end to corruption |first=Elida |last=Moreno |newspaper=Reuters |date=July 1, 2019 |via=Reuters.com |access-date=March 26, 2021 |archive-date=April 15, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415220835/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-panama-politics-idUSKCN1TW3ZN |url-status=live }}</ref>

During the presidency of Cortizo, numerous events happened in the country, including the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Panama|COVID-19 pandemic]] and its [[Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic|economic impact]], and the [[2022 Panamanian protests|2022]] and [[2023 Panamanian protests|2023 protests]].<ref>{{Cite web |author=Al Jazeera Staff |title=What is behind the largest protests in Panama in years? |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/7/20/what-is-behind-largest-protests-in-panama-in-years-explainer |access-date=2023-12-10 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en |archive-date=December 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210183443/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/7/20/what-is-behind-largest-protests-in-panama-in-years-explainer |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Salcedo |first=Andrea |date=2023-11-09 |title=Why ordinarily quiet Panama has erupted in deadly protests |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/11/07/panama-city-protests-copper-mine-deaths/ |access-date=2023-12-10 |issn=0190-8286 |archive-date=November 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107231108/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/11/07/panama-city-protests-copper-mine-deaths/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

On July 1, 2024, [[José Raúl Mulino]] was sworn in as Panama's new president.<ref>{{cite news |title=José Raúl Mulino is sworn in as Panama's new president |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/ap-panama-panama-city-alejandro-mayorkas-colombia-b2572152.html |work=The Independent |date=1 July 2024 |language=en |archive-date=July 2, 2024 |access-date=July 22, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240702015619/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/ap-panama-panama-city-alejandro-mayorkas-colombia-b2572152.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Mulino, a close ally of former president Ricardo Martinelli, won the presidential [[2024 Panamanian general election|election]] in May 2024.<ref>{{cite news |title=Stand-in Jose Raul Mulino wins Panama presidential race |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/5/6/mulino-wins-panama-presidential-race |work=Al Jazeera |language=en |archive-date=May 6, 2024 |access-date=July 22, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240506121656/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/5/6/mulino-wins-panama-presidential-race |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2024, due to a rapid rise of Chinese immigration to Panama supplanting the local population and now forming 4% of the people,<ref name="Mon">{{citation|title=The Chinese of Panama also have a story to tell...|last=Mon|first=Ramon|date=Spring 2013|url=https://revista.drclas.harvard.edu/the-chinese-of-panama-also-have-a-story-to-tell/|journal=ReVista Harvard Review of Latin America|access-date=March 5, 2025|archive-date=March 5, 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250305052102/https://revista.drclas.harvard.edu/the-chinese-of-panama-also-have-a-story-to-tell/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Jackson">{{citation|title=Panama's Chinese community celebrates a birthday, meets new challenges|last=Jackson|first=Eric|volume=10|issue=9|date=May 2004|access-date=2007-11-07|url=http://www.thepanamanews.com/pn/v_10/issue_09/community_01.html|journal=The Panama News|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070916050839/http://www.thepanamanews.com/pn/v_10/issue_09/community_01.html|archive-date=2007-09-16}}</ref> of which, they are accused by the [[United States]] of spying for the [[Chinese Communist Party]], in the strategic isthmus of Panama which is crucial for the trade in the Americas, thus, American President [[Donald Trump]] has threatened to sanction Panama unless the threat of China is neutralized.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-03 |title=Rubio demands Panama 'reduce China influence' over canal |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c39149p920no |access-date=2025-03-06 |website=[[BBC News]] |language=en-GB |archive-date=February 17, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250217183128/https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c39149p920no |url-status=live }}</ref>