Editing Oud (section)

==History==
===Musical instruments from pre-history===
{{See also|Lute#History and evolution of the lute}}

{{multiple image
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| image1            = Egyptian lute players 001.jpg
| alt1              = Egyptian long lutes, {{circa|1350 BC}}
| caption1          = Egyptian lute players with long-necked lutes. Fresco from the tomb of Nebamun, a nobleman in the 18th Dynasty of Ancient Egypt, {{circa|1350 BC}}
| image2            = Indo-GreekBanquet.JPG
| alt2              = Gandhara banquet with lute player
| caption2          = Hellenistic banquet scene from the 1st century AD, [[Hadda, Afghanistan|Hadda]], [[Gandhara]]. Short-necked, 2-string lute held by player, far right
}}
[[File:Relief or architectural ornament with an oudh player, Iran, 11th-12th century, slip-painted earthenware - Royal Ontario Museum - DSC04641.JPG|thumb|upright|left|alt=Oud type instrument iran 11th-12th centuries ad|Iran, 11th or 12th century A.D. Earthenware statue of a musician playing a short-necked, lute-style instrument]]

The complete history of the development of the lute family is not fully compiled at this date, only some of it. The highly influential organologist Curt Sachs distinguished between the "long-necked lute" and the short-necked variety.<ref name=sachsshortlong>{{cite book |last=Sachs |first=Curt |date=1940 |title=The History of Musical Instruments |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmusical00sach|url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmusical00sach/page/251 251], 253 |isbn=9780393020687 }}</ref> Douglas Alton Smith argues the long-necked variety should not be called lute at all because it existed for at least a millennium before the appearance of the short-necked instrument that eventually evolved into what is now known as the lute.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Smith|first1=Douglas Alton|title=A History of the Lute from Antiquity to the Renaissance|date=2002|publisher=Lute Society of America (LSA)|isbn=978-0-9714071-0-7}}</ref>

Musicologist [[Richard Dumbrill (musicologist)|Richard Dumbrill]] today uses the word more categorically to discuss instruments that existed millennia before the term "lute" was coined.<ref name=dumbrill1>{{Cite book |title=The archaeomusicology of the Ancient Near East |author=Dumbrill, Richard J. |date=2005 |publisher=Trafford |pages=305–310 |isbn=9781412055383 |location=Victoria, B.C. |oclc=62430171 |quote=The long-necked lute would have stemmed from the bow-harp and eventually became the tunbur; and the fat-bodied smaller lute would have evolved into the modern Oud. ... the lute pre-dated the lyre which can therefore be considered as a development of the lute, rather than the contrary, as had been thought until quite recently ... Thus the lute not only dates but also locates the transition from musical protoliteracy to musical literacy ...}}</ref> Dumbrill documented more than 3000 years of iconographic evidence for the lutes in Mesopotamia, in his book ''The Archaeomusicology of the Ancient Near East''. According to Dumbrill, the lute family included instruments in [[Mesopotamia]] prior to 3000&nbsp;BC.<ref name=Dumbrillp321>{{harvnb|Dumbrill|1998|p=321}}</ref> He points to a [[cylinder seal]] as evidence; dating from {{circa}} 3100&nbsp;BC or earlier (now in the possession of the British Museum); the seal depicts on one side what is thought to be a woman playing a stick "lute".<ref name="Dumbrillp321"/><ref name=Britishmuseum>{{cite web |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=1447477&partId=1&people=24615&peoA=24615-3-17&page=1 |publisher=British Museum |title=Cylinder Seal, Culture/period Uruk, Date (circa) 3100BC, Museum number 41632}}</ref> Like Sachs, Dumbrill saw length as distinguishing lutes, dividing the Mesopotamian lutes into a long-necked variety and a short.<ref name=Dumbrillp310>{{harvnb|Dumbrill|1998|p=310}}</ref> He focuses on the longer lutes of Mesopotamia, and similar types of related necked chordophones that developed throughout the ancient world: [[ancient Greece|Greek]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] (in the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]]), Elamites, [[Hittites|Hittite]], [[Ancient Rome|Roman]], [[Bulgars|Bulgar]], [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]], [[India]]n, [[China|Chinese]], [[Armenian people|Armenian]]/[[Cilician]], [[Phoenicia|Canaanite/Phoenician]], [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|Israelite/Judean]], and various other cultures. He names among the long lutes, the [[pandura]], the [[panduri]], [[tambur]] and [[tanbur]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Dumbrill |first=Richard J. |date=2005 |title=The Archaeomusicology of the Ancient Near East |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nlm1Kbc7P5UC&q=dumbrill%2C+long+lutes&pg=PA320 |location=Victoria, British Columbia |publisher=Trafford Publishing |pages=319–320 |isbn=978-1-4120-5538-3|quote=The long-necked lute in the OED is orthographed as tambura; tambora, tamera, tumboora; tambur(a) and tanpoora. We have an Arabic Õunbur; Persian tanbur; Armenian pandir; Georgian panturi. and a Serbo-Croat tamburitza. The Greeks called it pandura; panduros; phanduros; panduris or pandurion. The Latin is pandura. It is attested as a Nubian instrument in the third century BC. The earliest literary allusion to lutes in Greece comes from Anaxilas in his play The Lyre-maker as 'trichordos' ... According to Pollux, the trichordon [''sic''] was Assyrian and they gave it the name pandoura ... These instruments survive today in the form of the various Arabian ''tunbar'' ...}}</ref>

The line of short-necked lutes was further developed to the east of Mesopotamia, in [[Bactria]] and [[Gandhara]], into a short, almond-shaped lute.<ref name=Iranica/><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.clevelandart.org/art/1980.15|title= Bracket with two musicians 100s, Pakistan, Gandhara, probably Butkara in Swat, Kushan Period (1st century-320)|publisher= The Cleveland Museum of Art|access-date=March 25, 2015}}</ref> Curt Sachs talked about the depictions of Gandharan lutes in art, where they are presented in a mix of "Northwest Indian art" under "strong Greek influences".<ref name=sachs2>{{cite book |last=Sachs |first=Curt |date=1940 |title= The History of Musical Instruments |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmusical00sach|url-access=registration |location= New York |publisher= W. W. Norton & Company |pages= [https://archive.org/details/historyofmusical00sach/page/159 159–161]|isbn=9780393020687 }}</ref> The short-necked lutes in these Gandhara artworks were "the venerable ancestor of the Islamic, the Sino-Japanese and the European lute families."<ref name=sachs2/> He described the Gandhara lutes as having a "pear-shaped body tapering towards the short neck, a frontal stringholder, lateral pegs, and either four or five strings."<ref name=sachs2/> The oldest images of short-necked lutes from the area that Sachs knew of were "Persian figurines of the 8th century B.C.," found in excavations at Suza, but he knew of nothing connecting these to the Oud-related Gandharan art 8 centuries later.<ref name=sachs2/>

===Spread of oud to Europe===

When the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Umayyads conquered Hispania]] in 711, they brought their ud along. An oud is depicted as being played by a seated musician<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://universes.art/en/art-destinations/jordan/desert-castles/qusayr-amra/audience-hall/img-10|title=Musician and dancing woman, Qusayr Amra. Art Destination Jordan|website=universes.art}}</ref> in [[Qasr Amra]] of the [[Umayyad dynasty]], one of the earliest depictions of the instrument as played in early Islamic history.

During the 8th and 9th centuries, many musicians and artists from across the Islamic world flocked to [[al-Andalus]].<ref name=Menocal>{{Citation|title=The Literature of Al-Andalus|editor1=María Rosa Menocal |editor2=Raymond P. Scheindlin |editor3=Michael Anthony Sells |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000}}</ref> Among them was [[Ziryab|Abu l-Hasan ‘Ali Ibn Nafi‘]] (789–857),<ref name="Gill">{{cite book|last=Gill|first=John|title=Andalucia: A Cultural History|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-01-95-37610-4|page=81|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gGY2fSXko5kC&pg=PA81}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Lapidus|first=Ira M.|title=A History of Islamic Societies |year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn= 9780521779333|page=311|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I3mVUEzm8xMC&pg=PA311}}</ref> a prominent musician who had trained under [[Ishaq al-Mawsili]] ({{Died in|850}}) in [[Baghdad]] and was exiled to al-Andalus before 833 AD. He taught and has been credited with adding a fifth string to his oud<ref name=iranica>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/barbat |title=Encyclopaedia Iranica – Barbat |publisher=Iranicaonline.org |date=1988-12-15 |access-date=2012-02-04}}</ref> and with establishing one of the first schools of [[music]] in [[Emirate of Córdoba|Córdoba]].<ref name="Davila?">{{cite magazine|title=Fixing a Misbegotten Biography: Ziryab in the Mediterranean World|author=Davila, Carl|publisher=Al-Masaq |magazine=Islam in the Medieval Mediterranean |volume=21 |number=2 |year=2009}}</ref>

By the 11th century, Muslim Iberia had become a center for the manufacture of instruments. These goods spread gradually to [[Provence]], influencing French [[troubadour]]s and [[trouvères]] and eventually reaching the rest of Europe. While Europe developed the lute, the ''oud'' remained a central part of Arab music, and broader Ottoman music as well, undergoing a range of transformations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oudmigrations.com/2016/03/08/journeys-of-ottoman-ouds/|title=The journeys of Ottoman ouds|website=oudmigrations|date=8 March 2016|access-date=2016-04-26 |author1=Oudadmin }}</ref>

Although the major entry of the short lute was in western Europe, leading to a variety of lute styles, the short lute entered Europe in the East as well; as early as the sixth century, the Bulgars brought the short-necked variety of the instrument called [[Komuz]] to the Balkans.

===Origins theory from religious and philosophical beliefs===
[[File:Aleppo-Music0Band.jpg|thumb|left|[[Syria]]n musicians in [[Aleppo]] with an oud, {{circa|1915}}]]
According to Abū Ṭālib al-Mufaḍḍal (a-n-Naḥawī al-Lughawī) ibn Salma (9th century), who himself refers to Hishām ibn al-Kullā, the oud was invented by [[Lamech (descendant of Cain)|Lamech]], the descendant of [[Adam]] and [[Cain and Abel|Cain]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Kitāb al-Malāhī wa Asmāʾihā min Qibal al-Mūsīqā|last=ibn Salma|first=Abū Ṭālib al-Mufaḍḍal (a-n-Naḥawī al-Lughawī)|publisher=Al-Hay’a al-Miṣriyya al-ʿĀmma li-l-Kitāb|year=1984|location=Cairo - Egypt|pages=13–14|quote=ذكر هشام بن الكلّى أنّ أول من عمل العود فضرب به رجل من بني قابيل، ويقال: قايين بن آدم، يقال له: لامك، وكان عمّر زمانا طويلاً، ولم يكن يولد لهُ، فتزوّج خمسين امرأة وتسرّى بمائتي سريّة [...] ثم ولد له غلام قبل أن يموت بعشر سنين، فاشتد فرحه، فلما أتت على الغلام خمس سنين مات، فجزع عليه جزعًا شديدًا، فأخذه فعلّقه على شجرة، فقال: لا تذهب صورته عن عيني حتى يتقطّع أشلاء أو أموت، فجعل لحمه يقع عن عظامه حتى بقيت الفخذ بالساق والقدم والأصابع، فأخذ عودًا فشقّه ورقّقه وجعل يؤلف بعضه على بعض، فجعل صدره على صورة الفخذ، والعنق على صورة الساق، والإبريق على قدر القدم، والملاوي كالأصابع، وعلّق عليه أوتارًا كالعروق، ثم جعل يضرب به ويبكي وينوح حتى عمي، فكان أول من ناح، وسمّى الذي اتّخذ: عودًا، لأنه اتُخذ من عود}}</ref> Another hypothetical attribution says that its inventor was [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]].<ref name=":0"/> Ibn a-ṭ-Ṭaḥḥān adds two possible mythical origins: the first involves the Devil, who would have lured the "People of David" into exchanging (at least part of) their instruments with the oud. He writes himself that this version is not credible. The second version attributes, as in many other cultures influenced by Greek philosophy, the invention of the oud to "Philosophers".<ref name=":1" />

====Central Asia====
One theory is that the oud originated from the Persian instrument called a&nbsp;''barbat&nbsp;''(Persian: بربت ) or ''barbud'', a lute indicated by Marcel-Dubois to be of Central Asian origin. The earliest pictorial image of the barbat dates back to the 1st century BC from ancient northern [[Bactria]] and is the oldest evidence of the existence of the barbat.<ref name="BARBAT">{{cite web |last1=During |first1=J |title=BARBAT |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/barbat |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica}}</ref> Evidence of a form of the barbaṭ is found in a Gandhara sculpture from the 2nd-4th centuries AD which may well have been introduced by the [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] aristocracy, whose influence is attested in Gandharan art.<ref name="BARBAT"/> The name barbat itself meant ''short-necked lute'' in [[Middle Persian|Pahlavi]], the language of the [[Sasanian Empire]], through which the instrument came west from Central Asia to the Middle East, adopted by the Persians.<ref name=Iranica/><ref name=centralasia>{{Cite book |last= Blum|first= Stephen|title = Oxford Music Online|date=20 January 2001 |publisher= Oxford Music Online, Grove Music Online|quote= The ‘ūd (lute) is believed to be a later development of a pre-Islamic Persian instrument called barbat...[was part of] eastwards diffusion of Middle Eastern and Central Asian chordophones... the pipa, likewise derived from the barbat or from its prototype|doi = 10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.05284|chapter= Central Asia|isbn= 978-1-56159-263-0}}</ref>

The barbat (possibly known as mizhar, kirān, or muwatter, all skin topped versions) was used by some Arabs in the sixth century.<ref name=EncyclopiaIslam>{{cite book|title=First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913-1936|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ro--tXw_hxMC&pg=PA986|year=1993|publisher=BRILL|location=Leiden|isbn=978-90-04-09796-4|page=986}}</ref> At the end of the 6th century, a wood topped version of the Persian-styled instrument was constructed by al Nadr, called "ūd", and introduced from Iraq to Mecca.<ref name=EncyclopiaIslam/> This Persian-style instrument was being played there in the seventh century.<ref name=EncyclopiaIslam/> Sometime in the seventh century it was modified or "perfected" by [[Mansour Zalzal]], and the two instruments (barbat and "ūd shabbūt") were used side by side into the 10th century, and possibly longer.<ref name=EncyclopiaIslam/> The two instruments have been confused by modern scholars looking for examples, and some of the ouds identified may possibly be barbats.<ref name=EncyclopiaIslam/> Examples of this cited in the ''[[Encyclopedia of Islam]]'' include a lute in the [[Cantigas de Santa Maria]] and the frontispiece from ''The Life and Times of Ali Ibn Isa'' by Harold Bowen.<ref name=EncyclopiaIslam/>

The oldest pictorial record of a short-necked lute-type ''vīnā'' dates from around the 1st to 3rd centuries AD.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karaikudi S.|first=Subramanian|year=1985|title=An introduction to the Vina|journal=Asian Music|volume=16|issue=2|pages=7–82 (10)|quote=We find representations of the nissāri vinas in sculptures, paintings, terracotta figures, and coins in various parts of India […]. The lute type vina [...] is represented in Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, Pawaya (Gupta period), Ajanta paintings (300-500 A.D.) [...]. These varieties are plucked by the right hand and played by the left hand|doi=10.2307/833772|jstor=833772}}</ref> The site of origin of the oud seems to be Central Asia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Picken|first=Laurence|year=1955|title=The origin of the short lute|journal=The Galpin Society Journal|volume=8|pages=32–42 (40)|quote=With the evidence as yet available, it is reasonable to place the site of origin of the short lute in Central Asia, perhaps among Iranised Turco-Mongols, within the area of the ancient first-century kingdom of the Kusanas. This conclusion must not be taken to exclude the possibility that short lutes first appeared somewhat earlier and somewhat further to the West-in Parthia, for example; but at present the evidence of the Kusana reliefs is the only evidence of their existence in the first century[...] The lutes of the Kusanas would seem to be the first representations of undoubted short ovoid lutes; and Fu Hsüan’s essay, one of the first texts in any language devoted to a short lute, though not to an ovoid lute.|doi=10.2307/842155|jstor=842155}}</ref> The ancestor of the oud, the barbat was in use in pre-Islamic Persia. Since the Safavid period, and perhaps because of the name shift from barbat to oud, the instrument gradually lost favor with musicians.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Lawergren|first=Bo|year=2001|title=Iran|journal=The New Grove|pages=521–546 (534)}}</ref>

The [[Turkic peoples]] had a similar instrument called the ''[[komuz|kopuz]]''.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Chabrier|first=Jean-Claude|year=2008|title=ʿŪd|journal=Encyclopedia of Islam|pages=534|quote=The ḳabūs (al-Ḥid̲j̲āz), ḳabbūṣ (ʿUmān), ḳanbūṣ (Ḥaḍramawt), ḳupūz or ḳūpūz (Turkey) is a very old instrument. Ewliyā Čelebi [q.v.] says that the ḳūpūz was invented by a vizier of Meḥemmed II (d. 886/1481) named Aḥmed Pas̲h̲a Hersek Og̲h̲lu. He describes it as being a hollow instrument, smaller than the s̲h̲as̲h̲tār, and mounted with three strings (Travels, i/2, 235). On the other hand, Ibn G̲h̲aybī says that the ḳūpūz rūmī had five double strings. The instrument is no longer used by the Turks, although it has survived under the name of kobza, koboz, in Poland, Russia, and the Balkans, but here it is the lute proper and not a barbaṭ type}}</ref> This instrument was thought to have magical powers and was brought to wars and used in military bands. This is noted in the [[Göktürk]] monument inscriptions{{Citation needed|date=January 2017}}. The military band was later used by other Turkic state's armies and later by Europeans.<ref name=":4">Fuad Köprülü, ''Türk Edebiyatında İlk Mutasavvıflar'' (First Sufis in Turkish Literature), Ankara University Press, Ankara 1966, pp. 207, 209.; Gazimihal; Mahmud Ragıb, ''Ülkelerde Kopuz ve Tezeneli Sazlarımız'', Ankara University Press, Ankara 1975, p. 64.; ''Musiki Sözlüğü'' (Dictionary of Music), M.E.B. İstanbul 1961, pp. 138, 259, 260.; Curt Sachs, ''The History of Musical Instruments'', New York 1940, p. 252.</ref>{{Verify source|date=January 2017}}