Editing Ottoman Empire (section)

== History ==

{{Main|History of the Ottoman Empire}}
{{See also|Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire}}

=== Rise (c. 1299–1453) ===
{{Main|Rise of the Ottoman Empire}}
[[File:Sultan Uthman I.jpg|thumb|[[Ottoman miniature]] of [[Osman I]] by Yahya Bustanzâde (18th century)|left|upright]]

As the [[Sultanate of Rum|Rum Sultanate]] declined in the 13th century, [[Anatolia]] was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the [[Anatolian Beyliks]]. One of these, in the region of [[Bithynia]] on the frontier of the [[Byzantine Empire]], was led by the Turkish<ref>{{Cite book |last1=A'goston |first1=Ga'bor |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |last2=Masters |first2=Bruce Alan |date=2008 |publisher=Infobase Publishing, NY |isbn=978-0-8160-6259-1 |page=444}} "Osman was simply one among a number ''Turkoman'' tribal leaders operating in the Sakarya region."; {{Cite web |title=Osman I |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Osman-I |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424073731/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Osman-I |archive-date=24 April 2018 |access-date=1 July 2020 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica}} Osman I, also called Osman Gazi, (born {{circa|1258|lk=no}}—died 1324 or 1326), ruler of a Turkmen principality in northwestern Anatolia who is regarded as the founder of the Ottoman Turkish state.</ref> tribal leader [[Osman I]] ({{abbr|d.|died}} 1323/4),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Finkel |first=Caroline |title=Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923 |date=13 February 2006 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-02396-7 |pages=2, 7}}</ref> a figure of obscure origins from whom the name Ottoman is derived.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kermeli |first=Eugenia |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |date=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |editor-last=Ágoston |editor-first=Gábor |chapter=Osman I |editor-last2=Masters |editor-first2=Bruce |orig-date=2008}}</ref>{{rp|444}} Osman's early followers consisted of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, with many but not all converts to Islam.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lowry |first=Heath |title=The Nature of the Early Ottoman State |date=2003 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-5636-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fAppWuoFv3QC |access-date=9 September 2021 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151032/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Nature_of_the_Early_Ottoman_State/fAppWuoFv3QC?hl=en&gbpv=1 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|59}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kafadar |first=Cemal |title=Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State |date=1995}}</ref>{{rp|127}} Osman extended control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the [[Sakarya River]]. A Byzantine defeat at the [[Battle of Bapheus]] in 1302 contributed to Osman's rise. It is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbors, due to the lack of sources surviving. The [[Ghaza thesis]] popular during the 20th century credited their success to rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of [[Islam]], but it is no longer generally accepted. No other hypothesis has attracted broad acceptance.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Finkel |first=Caroline |title=Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire |date=2005 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-00850-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9cTHyUQoTyUC&pg=PA5 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151035/https://books.google.com/books?id=9cTHyUQoTyUC&pg=PA5 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|5, 10}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lindner |first=Rudi Paul |title=The Cambridge History of Turkey |date=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |volume=1, Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453 |location=Cambridge |chapter=Anatolia, 1300–1451}}</ref>{{rp|104}}

In the century after Osman I, Ottoman rule had begun to extend over Anatolia and the [[History of the Balkans|Balkans]]. The earliest conflicts began during the [[Byzantine–Ottoman wars]], waged in Anatolia in the late 13th century before entering Europe in the mid-14th century, followed by the [[Bulgarian–Ottoman wars]] and the [[Serbian–Ottoman wars]] in the mid-14th century. Much of this period was characterised by [[Rumelia|Ottoman expansion into the Balkans]]. Osman's son, [[Orhan]], captured the northwestern Anatolian city of [[Bursa]] in 1326, making it the new capital and supplanting Byzantine control in the region. The important port of [[Thessaloniki]] was captured from the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]] in 1387 and sacked. The Ottoman victory in [[Battle of Kosovo|Kosovo in 1389]] effectively marked the [[Fall of the Serbian Empire|end of Serbian power]] in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Elsie |first=Robert |title=Historical Dictionary of Kosova |date=2004 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-5309-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fnbw1wsacSAC&pg=PA95 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151033/https://books.google.com/books?id=Fnbw1wsacSAC&pg=PA95 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|95–96}} The [[Battle of Nicopolis]] for the [[Second Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian]] [[Tsardom of Vidin]] in 1396, regarded as the last large-scale [[Crusades|crusade]] of the [[Middle Ages]], failed to stop the advance of the victorious Ottomans.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nicolle |first=David |title=Nicopolis 1396: The Last Crusade |date=1999 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-85532-918-8}}</ref>

[[File:Battle of Nicopolis.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Nicopolis]] in 1396, as depicted in an [[Ottoman miniature]] from 1523|right|upright=.8]]

As the Turks expanded into the Balkans, the [[Sieges of Constantinople#Ottoman Sieges|conquest of Constantinople]] became a crucial objective. The Ottomans had already wrested control of nearly all former Byzantine lands surrounding the city, but the strong defense of Constantinople's strategic position on the [[Bosporus]] Strait made it difficult to conquer. In 1402, the Byzantines were temporarily relieved when the [[Turco-Mongol]] leader [[Timur]], founder of the [[Timurid Empire]], invaded Ottoman Anatolia from the east. In the [[Battle of Ankara]] in 1402, Timur defeated Ottoman forces and took Sultan [[Bayezid I]] as prisoner, throwing the empire into disorder. The [[Ottoman Interregnum|ensuing civil war]] lasted from 1402 to 1413 as Bayezid's sons fought over succession. It ended when [[Mehmed I]] emerged as the sultan and restored Ottoman power.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ágoston |first1=Gábor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA363 |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |last2=Bruce Alan Masters |date=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |orig-date=2008 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA363 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|363}}

The Balkan territories lost by the Ottomans after 1402, including Thessaloniki, Macedonia, and Kosovo, were later recovered by [[Murad II]] between the 1430s and 1450s. On 10 November 1444, Murad repelled the [[Crusade of Varna]] by defeating the Hungarian, Polish, and [[Wallachia]]n armies under [[Władysław III of Poland]] and [[John Hunyadi]] at the [[Battle of Varna]], although Albanians under [[Skanderbeg]] continued to resist. Four years later, John Hunyadi prepared another army of Hungarian and Wallachian forces to attack the Turks, but was again defeated at the [[Battle of Kosovo (1448)|Second Battle of Kosovo]] in 1448.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Uyar |first1=Mesut |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JgfNBKHG7S8C&pg=PA29 |title=A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk |last2=Edward J. Erickson |date=2009 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-275-98876-0 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=JgfNBKHG7S8C&pg=PA29 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|29}}

According to modern historiography, there is a direct connection between the rapid Ottoman military advance and the consequences of the [[Black Death]] from the mid-fourteenth century onwards. Byzantine territories, where the initial Ottoman conquests were carried out, were exhausted demographically and militarily due to the plague, which facilitated Ottoman expansion. In addition, slave hunting  was the main economic driving force behind Ottoman conquest. Some 21st-century authors re-periodize conquest of the Balkans into the ''akıncı phase'', which spanned 8 to 13 decades, characterized by continuous slave hunting and destruction, followed by administrative integration into the Empire.<ref name="Schmitt-Kiprovska">{{cite journal |last1=Schmitt |first1=O. J. |last2=Kiprovska |first2=M. |date=2022 |title=Ottoman Raiders (Akıncıs) as a Driving Force of Early Ottoman Conquest of the Balkans and the Slavery-Based Economy |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |publisher=Brill |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=497–582 |doi=10.1163/15685209-12341575 |s2cid=249355977 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Nükhet_Varlik">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/plague-and-empire-in-the-early-modern-mediterranean-world/D35B6A9462B1E2849AA2F9A75048DF69|title=Plague and Empire in the Early Modern Mediterranean World, The Ottoman Experience, 1347–1600|author=Nükhet Varlik|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2015|doi=10.1017/CBO9781139004046|isbn=978-1-139-00404-6|s2cid=197967256|access-date=2 February 2023|archive-date=2 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202092936/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/plague-and-empire-in-the-early-modern-mediterranean-world/D35B6A9462B1E2849AA2F9A75048DF69|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Ayalon-2014">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/natural-disasters-in-the-ottoman-empire/2F67203808F11027678E583B5CE49C2F|title=Natural Disasters in the Ottoman Empire, Plague, Famine, and Other Misfortunes|author=Yaron Ayalon|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|doi=10.1017/CBO9781139680943|isbn=978-1-139-68094-3|access-date=2 February 2023|archive-date=2 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202093507/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/natural-disasters-in-the-ottoman-empire/2F67203808F11027678E583B5CE49C2F|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ase/advpub/0/advpub_161011/_pdf|title=The origin and early spread of the Black Death in Italy: first evidence of plague victims from 14th-century Liguria (northern Italy)|author1=D. Cesana |author2=O.J. Benedictow |author3=R. Bianucci |publisher=Anthropological Science |date=11 October 2016 |access-date=2 February 2023 |archive-date=8 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008073522/https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ase/advpub/0/advpub_161011/_pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Expansion and peak (1453–1566) ===
{{Main|Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire}}
[[File:Zonaro GatesofConst.jpg|thumb|Sultan [[Mehmed II|Mehmed the Conqueror]]'s entry into [[Constantinople]]; painting by [[Fausto Zonaro]] (1854–1929)|upright=.8|left]]

The son of Murad II, [[Mehmed the Conqueror]], reorganized both state and military, and on 29 May 1453 conquered [[fall of Constantinople|Constantinople]], ending the Byzantine Empire.<ref name="Quataert2005">{{Cite book |last=Quataert |first=Donald |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922 |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-83910-5 |edition=2 |page=4}}</ref> Mehmed allowed the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] to maintain its autonomy and land in exchange for accepting Ottoman authority.<ref name="books.google">{{Cite book |last=Stone |first=Norman |title=Russia War, Peace And Diplomacy: Essays in Honour of John Erickson |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |date=2005 |isbn=978-0-297-84913-1 |editor-last=Mark Erickson, Ljubica Erickson |page=94 |chapter=Turkey in the Russian Mirror |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Due to tension between the states of western Europe and the later Byzantine Empire, most of the Orthodox population accepted Ottoman rule, as preferable to Venetian rule.<ref name="books.google"/> [[Albanian uprisings in the Ottoman Empire|Albanian resistance]] was a major obstacle to Ottoman expansion on the Italian peninsula.<ref>Hodgkinson 2005, p. 240</ref>

In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire entered a [[Growth of the Ottoman Empire|period of expansion]]. The Empire prospered under the rule of a line of committed and effective [[Ottoman Dynasty|Sultans]]. It flourished economically due to its control of the major overland trade routes between Europe and Asia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Karpat, Kemal H. |title=The Ottoman state and its place in world history |publisher=Brill |date=1974 |isbn=978-90-04-03945-2 |location=Leiden}}</ref>{{rp|111}}{{efn|A lock-hold on trade between western Europe and Asia is often cited as a primary motivation for [[Isabella I of Castile]] to fund [[Christopher Columbus]]'s westward journey to find a sailing route to Asia and, more generally, for European seafaring nations to explore alternative trade routes (e.g., K.D. Madan, ''Life and travels of Vasco Da Gama'' (1998), 9; I. Stavans, ''Imagining Columbus: the literary voyage'' (2001), 5; W.B. Wheeler and S. Becker, ''Discovering the American Past. A Look at the Evidence: to 1877'' (2006), 105). This traditional viewpoint has been attacked as unfounded in an influential article by A.H. Lybyer ("The Ottoman Turks and the Routes of Oriental Trade", ''English Historical Review'', 120 (1915), 577–588), who sees the rise of Ottoman power and the beginnings of Portuguese and Spanish explorations as unrelated events. His view has not been universally accepted (cf. K.M. Setton, ''The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Vol. 2: The Fifteenth Century (Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 127)'' (1978), 335).}}

Sultan [[Selim I]] (1512–1520) dramatically expanded the eastern and southern frontiers by defeating [[Ismail I|Shah Ismail]] of [[Safavid Iran]], in the [[Battle of Chaldiran]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Savory |first=R. M. |date=1960 |title=The Principal Offices of the Ṣafawid State during the Reign of Ismā'īl I (907–930/1501–1524) |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=91–105 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X00149006 |jstor=609888|s2cid=154467531}}</ref>{{rp|91–105}} Selim I established [[Egypt Eyalet|Ottoman rule in Egypt]] by defeating and annexing the [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt]] and created a naval presence on the [[Red Sea]]. After this Ottoman expansion, competition began between the [[Portuguese Empire]] and the Ottomans to become the dominant power in the region.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hess |first=Andrew C. |date=January 1973 |title=The Ottoman Conquest of Egypt (1517) and the Beginning of the Sixteenth-Century World War |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=55–76 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800027276 |jstor=162225|s2cid=162219690 }}</ref>{{rp|55–76}}


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| footer            = [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] and his wife [[Hurrem Sultan|Hürrem Sultan]], by 16th-century [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] [[Venetian painting|painter]] [[Titian]]
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[[Suleiman the Magnificent]] (1520–1566)<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 May 2008 |title=Ottoman Empire |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41&_pos=3 |url-status=deviated |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610093907/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41 |archive-date=10 June 2022 |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=Oxford Islamic Studies Online}}</ref> captured [[Belgrade]] in 1521, conquered the southern and central parts of the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] as part of the [[Ottoman–Hungarian Wars]], and, after his historic victory in the [[Battle of Mohács]] in 1526, he established Ottoman rule in the territory of present-day Hungary and other Central European territories. He then laid [[Siege of Vienna (1529)|siege to Vienna]] in 1529, but failed to take the city.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Imber |first=Colin |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date=2002 |isbn=978-0-333-61386-3}}</ref>{{rp|50}} In 1532, he made another [[Habsburg–Ottoman wars in Hungary (1526–1568)|attack]] on Vienna, but was repulsed in the [[siege of Güns]].<ref name="Thompson442">{{Cite book |last=Thompson |first=Bard |title=Humanists and Reformers: A History of the Renaissance and Reformation |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |date=1996 |isbn=978-0-8028-6348-5 |page=442}}</ref><ref name="Ágoston and Alan Masters583">{{Cite book |last=Ágoston and Alan Masters |first=Gábor and Bruce |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |publisher=Infobase Publishing |date=2009 |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |page=583}}</ref> [[Transylvania]], Wallachia and, intermittently, [[Moldavia]], became tributary principalities of the Empire. In the east, the Ottoman Turks took [[Baghdad]] from the Persians in 1535, gaining control of [[Mesopotamia]] and naval access to the [[Persian Gulf]]. After the end of the [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1532–1555)]], the [[Caucasus]] became partitioned for the first time between the Safavids and the Ottomans, a ''[[status quo]]'' that persisted until the [[Russian conquest of the Caucasus]] in the 19th century. By this partitioning as signed in the [[Peace of Amasya]], [[Western Armenia]], western [[Kurdistan]], and [[Kingdom of Imereti|Western Georgia]] fell into Ottoman hands,<ref>''The Reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, 1520–1566'', V.J. Parry, ''A History of the Ottoman Empire to 1730'', ed. M.A. Cook (Cambridge University Press, 1976), 94.</ref> while southern [[Dagestan]], [[Eastern Armenia]], [[Eastern Georgia (country)|Eastern Georgia]], and [[Azerbaijan]] remained Persian.<ref>''A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East'', Vol. II, ed. Spencer C. Tucker, (ABC-CLIO, 2010). 516.</ref>

[[File:Battle of Mohács, with Suleiman I in the middle.jpg|thumb|Ottoman miniature of the [[Battle of Mohács]] in 1526<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lokman |date=1588 |title=Battle of Mohács (1526) |url=http://warfare.atwebpages.com/Ottoman/Ottoman.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529094441/http://warfare.atwebpages.com/Ottoman/Ottoman.htm |archive-date=29 May 2013}}</ref>|upright|left]]

In 1539, a 60,000-strong Ottoman army besieged the [[Habsburg Spain|Spanish]] garrison of [[Siege of Castelnuovo|Castelnuovo]] on the [[Adriatic coast]]; the successful siege cost the Ottomans 8,000 casualties,<ref>{{Cite book |title=Revival: A History of the Art of War in the Sixteenth Century (1937) |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref> but [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] agreed to terms in 1540, surrendering most of its empire in the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] and the [[Morea]]. [[Early Modern France|France]] and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to [[Habsburg]] rule,<ref name="AksanOW">{{Cite book |last=Aksan |first=Virginia |title=Ottoman Wars, 1700–1860: An Empire Besieged |date=2007 |publisher=Pearson Education Ltd. |isbn=978-0-582-30807-7 |pages=130–135}}</ref> became allies. The French conquests of [[Siege of Nice|Nice]] (1543) and [[Invasion of Corsica (1553)|Corsica]] (1553) occurred as a joint venture between French king [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] and Suleiman, and were commanded by the Ottoman admirals [[Hayreddin Barbarossa]] and [[Dragut]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Imber |first=Colin |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date=2002 |isbn=978-0-333-61386-3 |page=53}}</ref> France supported the Ottomans with an artillery unit during the 1543 Ottoman [[siege of Esztergom (1543)|conquest of Esztergom]] in northern Hungary. After further advances by the Turks, the Habsburg ruler [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand]] officially recognized Ottoman ascendancy in Hungary in 1547. Suleiman died of natural causes during the [[siege of Szigetvár]] in 1566. Following his death, the Ottomans were said to be declining, although this has been rejected by many scholars.<ref name="decline">{{Cite book |last=Hathaway |first=Jane |title=The Arab Lands under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1800 |date=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education Ltd. |isbn=978-0-582-41899-8 |page=8 |quote=historians of the Ottoman Empire have rejected the narrative of decline in favor of one of crisis and adaptation}}; {{Cite book |last=Tezcan |first=Baki |title=The Second Ottoman Empire: Political and Social Transformation in the Early Modern Period |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-41144-9 |page=9 |quote=Ottomanist historians have produced several works in the last decades, revising the traditional understanding of this period from various angles, some of which were not even considered as topics of historical inquiry in the mid-twentieth century. Thanks to these works, the conventional narrative of Ottoman history – that in the late sixteenth century the Ottoman Empire entered a prolonged period of decline marked by steadily increasing military decay and institutional corruption – has been discarded.}}; {{Cite book |last=Woodhead |first=Christine |title=The Ottoman World |date=2011 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-44492-7 |editor=Christine Woodhead |page=5 |chapter=Introduction |quote=Ottomanist historians have largely jettisoned the notion of a post-1600 'decline'}}</ref> By the end of Suleiman's reign, the Empire spanned approximately {{Cvt|877888|mi2}}, extending over three continents.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |date=2009 |editor-last=Masters |editor-first=Bruce |chapter=Süleyman I}}</ref>{{rp|545}}

[[File:IAN_0137_Urrabieta_y_Ortiz_1859_Preveza.jpg|thumb|Ottoman admiral [[Hayreddin Barbarossa|Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha]] defeated the [[Holy League (1538)|Holy League]] of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] under the command of [[Andrea Doria]] at the [[Battle of Preveza]] in 1538.]]

The Empire became a dominant naval force, controlling much of the [[Mediterranean Sea]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mansel |first=Philip |title=[[Constantinople: City of the World's Desire, 1453–1924]] |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |date=1997 |isbn=978-0-14-026246-9 |location=London |author-link=Philip Mansel}}</ref>{{rp|61}} The Empire was now a major part of European politics. The Ottomans became involved in multi-continental religious wars when Spain and Portugal were united under the [[Iberian Union]]. The Ottomans were holders of the Caliph title, meaning they were the leaders of Muslims worldwide. The Iberians were leaders of the Christian crusaders, and so the two fought in a worldwide conflict. There were zones of operations in the Mediterranean<ref>Crowley, Roger [https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7RuHr4wP3AC Empires of the Sea: The siege of Malta, the battle of Lepanto and the contest for the center of the world] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141246/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Empires_of_the_Sea/Y7RuHr4wP3AC?hl=en&gbpv=1 |date=1 November 2022 }}, Random House, 2008</ref> and [[Indian Ocean]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Ottoman 'Discovery' of the Indian Ocean in the Sixteenth Century: The Age of Exploration from an Islamic Perspective |url=https://historycooperative.org/journal/the-ottoman-discovery-of-the-indian-ocean-in-the-sixteenth-century-the-age-of-exploration-from-an-islamic-perspective |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190729152826/https://historycooperative.org/journal/the-ottoman-discovery-of-the-indian-ocean-in-the-sixteenth-century-the-age-of-exploration-from-an-islamic-perspective |archive-date=29 July 2019 |access-date=11 September 2019 |website=historycooperative.org}}</ref> where Iberians circumnavigated Africa to reach India and, on their way, wage war upon the Ottomans and their local Muslim allies. Likewise, the Iberians passed through newly-Christianized [[Latin America]] and [[Juan de Salcedo|had sent expeditions]] that traversed the Pacific to Christianize the formerly Muslim Philippines and use it as a base to attack the Muslims in the [[Far East]].<ref>Charles A. Truxillo (2012), Jain Publishing Company, [https://books.google.com/books?id=prA99TUDgKQC "Crusaders in the Far East: The Moro Wars in the Philippines in the Context of the Ibero-Islamic World War"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141253/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Crusaders_in_the_Far_East/prA99TUDgKQC?hl=en&gbpv=1 |date=1 November 2022 }}.</ref> In this case, the Ottomans [[Ottoman expeditions to Aceh|sent armies]] to aid its easternmost vassal and territory, the [[Sultanate of Aceh]] in Southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite book |last=Palabiyik |first=Hamit |title=Turkish Public Administration: From Tradition to the Modern Age |publisher=Ankara |date=2008}}</ref>{{rp|84}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=İsmail Hakkı Göksoy |url=http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/docs/Aceh-project/full-papers/aceh_fp_ismailhakkigoksoy.pdf |title=''Ottoman-Aceh Relations According to the Turkish Sources'' |access-date=16 December 2018 |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080119135247/http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/docs/Aceh-project/full-papers/aceh_fp_ismailhakkigoksoy.pdf |archive-date=19 January 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The [[Spanish–Ottoman wars]] took place primarily in the Mediterranean. [[Barbary corsairs]] from the North African cities of Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, which were nominally part of the Ottoman Empire, captured thousands of merchant ships and raided coastal towns in Europe, [[Barbary slave trade|enslaving]] the people they captured.<ref name=Toll>[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/12/books/review/Toll-t.html Review of ''Pirates of Barbary''] by Ian W. Toll, ''The New York Times,'' 12 December 2010</ref>

During the 1600s, the world conflict between the Ottoman Caliphate and Iberian Union was a stalemate since [[List of countries by population in 1600|both were at similar population]], technology and economic levels. Nevertheless, the success of the Ottoman political and military establishment was compared to the [[Roman Empire]], despite the difference in size, by the likes of contemporary Italian scholar [[Francesco Sansovino]] and French political philosopher [[Jean Bodin]].<ref name="deringil709">{{Cite journal |last=Deringil |first=Selim |date=September 2007 |title=The Turks and 'Europe': The Argument from History |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=709–723 |doi=10.1080/00263200701422600 |s2cid=144606323}}</ref>

=== Stagnation and reform (1566–1827) ===
==== Revolts, reversals, and revivals (1566–1683) ====
{{Main|Transformation of the Ottoman Empire}}
{{Further|Ottoman decline thesis}}
[[File:IstanbulNavalMuseum38.JPG|thumb|Late 16th or early 17th century [[Ottoman Navy|Ottoman]] [[galley]] known as ''[[Tarihi Kadırga]]'' at the [[Istanbul Naval Museum]], built in the period between the reigns of Sultan [[Murad III]] (1574–1595) and Sultan [[Mehmed IV]] (1648–1687)<ref name="kadirga1">{{Cite web |date=24 November 2021 |title=The Historical Galley |url=https://denizmuzesi.dzkk.tsk.tr/index.php/en/content/2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008120739/https://denizmuzesi.dzkk.tsk.tr/index.php/en/content/2 |archive-date=8 October 2021 |website=denizmuzesi.dzkk.tsk.tr}}</ref><ref name="kadirga2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304623376|title=Liphschitz, N., 2014. The Kadirga galley in Istanbul – The Turkish Sultan's Caique: A dendrohistorical research. In: Environment and Ecology in the Mediterranean Rgion II (eds. R. Efe and M. Ozturk). Cambridge Scholars Pub. Pp.39–48. Cambridge.}}</ref>]]

In the second half of the sixteenth century, the Ottoman Empire came under increasing strain from inflation and the rapidly rising costs of warfare that were impacting both Europe and the Middle East.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |date=2009 |editor-last=Ágoston |editor-first=Gábor |page=xxxii |chapter=Introduction |editor-last2=Bruce Masters}}; {{Cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |editor-last=İnalcık |editor-first=Halil |volume=2 |page=553 |chapter=Crisis and Change, 1590–1699 |quote=In the past fifty years, scholars have frequently tended to view this decreasing participation of the sultan in political life as evidence for "Ottoman decadence", which supposedly began at some time during the second half of the sixteenth century. But recently, more note has been taken of the fact that the Ottoman Empire was still a formidable military and political power throughout the seventeenth century, and that noticeable though limited economic recovery followed the crisis of the years around 1600; after the crisis of the 1683–1699 war, there followed a longer and more decisive economic upswing. Major evidence of decline was not visible before the second half of the eighteenth century. |editor2=Donald Quataert}}</ref> These pressures led to a series of crises around the year 1600, placing great strain upon the Ottoman system of government.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |editor-last=İnalcık |editor-first=Halil |volume=2 |chapter=Crisis and Change, 1590–1699 |editor-last2=Donald Quataert}}</ref>{{rp|413–414}} The empire underwent a series of transformations of its political and military institutions in response to these challenges, enabling it to successfully adapt to the new conditions of the seventeenth century and remain powerful, both militarily and economically.<ref name=decline/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Şahin |first=Kaya |title=Empire and Power in the Reign of Süleyman: Narrating the Sixteenth-Century Ottoman World |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2013 |isbn=978-1-107-03442-6}}</ref>{{rp|10}} Historians of the mid-twentieth century once characterised this period as one of stagnation and decline, but this view is now rejected by the majority of academics.<ref name=decline/>

The discovery of new maritime trade routes by Western European states allowed them to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly. The [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portuguese]] discovery of the [[Cape of Good Hope]] in 1488 initiated [[Ottoman naval expeditions in the Indian Ocean|a series of Ottoman-Portuguese naval wars]] in the [[Indian Ocean]] throughout the 16th century. Despite the growing European presence in the Indian Ocean, Ottoman trade with the east continued to flourish. Cairo, in particular, benefitted from the rise of Yemeni coffee as a popular consumer commodity. As coffeehouses appeared in cities and towns across the empire, Cairo developed into a major center for its trade, contributing to its continued prosperity throughout the seventeenth and much of the eighteenth century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |editor-last=İnalcık |editor-first=Halil |volume=2 |chapter=Crisis and Change, 1590–1699 |editor-last2=Quataert |editor-first2=Donald}}</ref>{{rp|507–508}}

Under [[Ivan IV]] (1533–1584), the [[Tsardom of Russia]] expanded into the Volga and Caspian regions at the expense of the [[Tatars|Tatar]] [[khanate]]s. In 1571, the Crimean khan [[Devlet I Giray]], commanded by the Ottomans, [[Russo-Crimean Wars|invaded Russia]] and [[Fire of Moscow (1571)|burned Moscow]].<ref name="Davies2007">{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Brian L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XH4hghHo1qoC&pg=PA16 |title=Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe: 1500–1700 |publisher=Routledge |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-415-23986-8 |page=16 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151037/https://books.google.com/books?id=XH4hghHo1qoC&pg=PA16 |url-status=live }}</ref> The next year, the invasion was repeated but repelled at the [[Battle of Molodi]]. The Ottoman Empire and its vassal, the Crimean Khanate, continued to invade Eastern Europe in a series of [[Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe|slave raids]],<ref name="Subtelny2000">{{Cite book |last=Orest Subtelny |url=https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0 |title=Ukraine |publisher=University of Toronto Press |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-8020-8390-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0/page/106 106] |access-date=11 February 2013 |url-access=registration}}</ref> and remained a significant power in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Matsuki |first=Eizo |title=The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves |url=http://www.econ.hit-u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115170654/http://www.econ.hit-u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf |archive-date=15 January 2013 |access-date=11 February 2013 |publisher=Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University }}</ref> The Crimean cavalry became indispensable for the Ottomans' campaigns against Russia, [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland]], [[Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)|Hungary]], and [[Safavid Iran|Persia]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Brian Glyn Williams |title=The Sultan's Raiders: The Military Role of the Crimean Tatars in the Ottoman Empire |url=http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Crimean_Tatar_-_complete_report_01.pdf |website=[[The Jamestown Foundation]] |date=2013 |page=27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021092115/http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Crimean_Tatar_-_complete_report_01.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2013 }}</ref> 

[[File:Giorgio-vasari-battle-of-lepanto.jpg|thumb|Order of battle of the two fleets in the [[Battle of Lepanto]], with an allegory of the three powers of the [[Holy League (1571)|Holy League]] in the foreground, fresco by [[Giorgio Vasari]]]]

The Ottomans decided to conquer [[Venetian Cyprus]] and on 22 July 1570, Nicosia was besieged; 50,000 Christians died, and 180,000 were enslaved.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History. Volume 10 Ottoman and Safavid Empires (1600–1700) |publisher=BRILL}}</ref>{{rp|67}} On 15 September 1570, the Ottoman cavalry appeared before the last Venetian stronghold in Cyprus, Famagusta. The Venetian defenders held out for 11 months against a force that at its peak numbered 200,000 men with 145 cannons; 163,000 cannonballs struck the walls of Famagusta before it fell to the Ottomans in August 1571. The [[Siege of Famagusta]] claimed 50,000 Ottoman casualties.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tucker |first=Spencer C. |title=Middle East Conflicts from Ancient Egypt to the 21st Century: An Encyclopedia and Document Collection [4 volumes] |date=2019}}</ref>{{rp|328}} Meanwhile, the [[Holy League (1571)|Holy League]] consisting of mostly Spanish and Venetian fleets won a victory over the Ottoman fleet at the [[Battle of Lepanto]] (1571), off southwestern Greece; Catholic forces killed over 30,000 Turks and destroyed 200 of their ships.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hanlon |first=Gregory |title=The Twilight Of A Military Tradition: Italian Aristocrats And European Conflicts, 1560–1800 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref>{{rp|24}} It was a startling, if mostly symbolic,{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|p=272}} blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility, an image which the victory of the [[Knights Hospitaller|Knights of Malta]] over the Ottoman invaders in the 1565 [[Great Siege of Malta|siege of Malta]] had recently set about eroding.<ref>{{cite book |last=Braudel |first=Fernand Braudel |title=The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II |volume=II |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |date=1995}}</ref> The battle was far more damaging to the Ottoman navy in sapping experienced manpower than the loss of ships, which were rapidly replaced.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kunt |first1=Metin |title=Süleyman the Magnificent and His Age: the Ottoman Empire in the Early Modern World |last2=Woodhead |first2=Christine |publisher=Longman |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-582-03827-1}}</ref>{{rp|53}} The Ottoman navy recovered quickly, persuading Venice to sign a peace treaty in 1573, allowing the Ottomans to expand and consolidate their position in North Africa.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=67}}

By contrast, the [[Ottoman–Habsburg wars|Habsburg frontier]] had settled somewhat, a stalemate caused by a stiffening of the [[Military Frontier|Habsburg defenses]].{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=71}} The [[Long Turkish War]] against Habsburg Austria (1593–1606) created the need for greater numbers of Ottoman infantry equipped with firearms, resulting in a relaxation of recruitment policy. This contributed to problems of indiscipline and outright rebelliousness within the corps, which were never fully solved.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|pp=90–92}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2016}} Irregular sharpshooters ([[Sekban]]) were also recruited, and on demobilisation turned to [[brigandage]] in the [[Celali rebellions]] (1590–1610), which engendered widespread anarchy in [[Anatolia]] in the late 16th and early 17th centuries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Halil İnalcık |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1j-AtkBmn78C&pg=PA24 |title=An Economic And Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Vol. 1 1300–1600 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1997 |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151035/https://books.google.com/books?id=1j-AtkBmn78C&pg=PA24 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|24}} With the Empire's population reaching 30&nbsp;million people by 1600, the shortage of land placed further pressure on the government.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|p=281}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2016}} In spite of these problems, the Ottoman state remained strong, and its army did not collapse or suffer crushing defeats. The only exceptions were campaigns against the [[Safavid dynasty]] of Persia, where many of the Ottoman eastern provinces were lost, some permanently. This [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618)|1603–1618 war]] eventually resulted in the [[Treaty of Nasuh Pasha]], which ceded the entire Caucasus, except westernmost Georgia, back into the possession of [[Safavid Iran]].<ref>Gábor Ágoston, Bruce Alan Masters [https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA23 ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141240/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA23 |date=1 November 2022 }} pp. 23 Infobase Publishing, 1 January 2009 {{ISBN|1-4381-1025-1}}</ref> The treaty ending the [[Cretan War (1645–1669)|Cretan War]] cost Venice much of [[Venetian Dalmatia|Dalmatia]], its Aegean island possessions, and [[Kingdom of Candia|Crete]]. (Losses from the war totalled 30,985 Venetian soldiers and 118,754 Turkish soldiers.)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Paoletti |first=Ciro |title=A Military History of Italy |date=2008}}</ref>{{rp|33}}

During his brief majority reign, [[Murad IV]] (1623–1640) reasserted central authority and [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–1639)|recaptured Iraq]] (1639) from the Safavids.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=73}} The resulting [[Treaty of Zuhab]] of that same year decisively divided the Caucasus and adjacent regions between the two neighbouring empires as it had already been defined in the 1555 Peace of Amasya.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Herzig |first1=Edmund |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B8WRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |title=Armenians: Past and Present in the Making of National Identity |last2=Kurkchiyan |first2=Marina |date=10 November 2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-79837-6 |access-date=30 December 2014 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151037/https://books.google.com/books?id=B8WRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rubenstein |first=Richard L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yED-aVDCbycC&pg=PA228 |title=Genocide and the Modern Age: Etiology and Case Studies of Mass Death |date=2000 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |isbn=978-0-8156-2828-6 |access-date=30 December 2014 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151037/https://books.google.com/books?id=yED-aVDCbycC&pg=PA228 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Sultanate of Women]] (1533–1656) was a period in which the mothers of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons. The most prominent women of this period were [[Kösem Sultan]] and her daughter-in-law [[Turhan Hatice]], whose political rivalry culminated in Kösem's murder in 1651.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|pp=74–75}} During the [[Köprülü era]] (1656–1703), effective control of the Empire was exercised by a sequence of [[grand vizier]]s from the Köprülü family. The Köprülü Vizierate saw renewed military success with authority restored in Transylvania, the conquest of [[Crete]] completed in 1669, and [[Polish–Ottoman War (1672–1676)|expansion]] into [[History of Ukraine#Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Polish southern Ukraine]], with the strongholds of [[Khotyn]], and [[Kamianets-Podilskyi]] and the territory of [[Podolia]] ceding to Ottoman control in 1676.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|pp=80–81}}

[[File:Vienna Battle 1683.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Vienna|Second Siege of Vienna]] in 1683, by [[Frans Geffels]] (1624–1694)]]

This period of renewed assertiveness came to a calamitous end in 1683 when Grand Vizier [[Kara Mustafa Pasha]] led a huge army to attempt a second Ottoman siege of [[History of Vienna|Vienna]] in the [[Great Turkish War]] of 1683–1699. The final assault being fatally delayed, the Ottoman forces were swept away by allied Habsburg, German, and Polish forces spearheaded by the Polish king [[John III Sobieski]] at the [[Battle of Vienna]]. The alliance of the [[Holy League (1684)|Holy League]] pressed home the advantage of the defeat at Vienna, culminating in the [[Treaty of Karlowitz]] (26 January 1699), which ended the Great Turkish War.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|p=357}} The Ottomans surrendered control of significant territories, many permanently.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=84}} [[Mustafa II]] (1695–1703) led the counterattack of 1695–1696 against the Habsburgs in Hungary, but was undone at the disastrous defeat at [[Battle of Zenta|Zenta]] (in modern Serbia), 11 September 1697.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|pp=83–84}}

==== Military defeats ====
Aside from the loss of the [[Banat]] and the temporary loss of [[History of Belgrade|Belgrade]] (1717–1739), the Ottoman border on the [[Danube]] and [[Sava]] remained stable during the eighteenth century. [[Expansion of Russia 1500–1800|Russian expansion]], however, presented a large and growing threat.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=371}} Accordingly, King [[Charles XII of Sweden]] was welcomed as an ally in the Ottoman Empire following his defeat by the Russians at the [[Battle of Poltava]] of 1709 in central Ukraine (part of the [[Great Northern War]] of 1700–1721).{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=371}} Charles XII persuaded the Ottoman Sultan [[Ahmed III]] to declare war on Russia, which resulted in an Ottoman victory in the [[Pruth River Campaign]] of 1710–1711, in Moldavia.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=372}}

[[File:1720 Huchtenburg Eroberungs Belgrads 1717 anagoria.JPG|thumb|Austrian troops led by [[Prince Eugene of Savoy]] capture [[Belgrade]] in 1717. Austrian control in Serbia lasted until the Turkish victory in the [[Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739)|Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–1739)]]. With the 1739 [[Treaty of Belgrade]], the Ottoman Empire regained northern [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]], [[Kingdom of Serbia (1718–1739)|Habsburg Serbia]] (including Belgrade), [[Oltenia]] and the southern parts of the [[Banat of Temeswar]].]]

After the [[Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718)|Austro-Turkish War]], the [[Treaty of Passarowitz]] confirmed the loss of the Banat, Serbia, and [[Oltenia|"Little Walachia" (Oltenia)]] to Austria. The Treaty also revealed that the Ottoman Empire was on the defensive and unlikely to present any further aggression in Europe.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=376}} The [[Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–1739)|Austro-Russian–Turkish War]] (1735–1739), which was ended by the [[Treaty of Belgrade]] in 1739, resulted in the Ottoman recovery of northern [[Bosnia]], [[Kingdom of Serbia (1718–1739)|Habsburg Serbia]] (including Belgrade), [[Oltenia]] and the southern parts of the [[Banat of Temeswar]]; but the Empire lost the port of [[Azov]], north of the Crimean Peninsula, to the Russians. After this treaty the Ottoman Empire was able to enjoy a generation of peace in Europe, as Austria and Russia were forced to deal with the rise of [[Prussia]].{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=392}}

[[Science and Technology in the Ottoman Empire#Education|Educational and technological reforms]] came about, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as the [[Istanbul Technical University]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=History |url=http://www.itu.edu.tr/en/?about/history |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618160944/http://www.itu.edu.tr/en/?about%2Fhistory |archive-date=18 June 2012 |access-date=6 November 2011 |publisher=Istanbul Technical University}}</ref> In 1734 an artillery school was established to impart Western-style artillery methods, but the Islamic clergy successfully objected under the grounds of [[theodicy]].<ref name="books.google_a">{{Cite book |last=Stone |first=Norman |title=Russia War, Peace And Diplomacy: Essays in Honour of John Erickson |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |date=2005 |isbn=978-0-297-84913-1 |editor-last=Mark Erickson, Ljubica Erickson |page=97 |chapter=Turkey in the Russian Mirror |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1754 the artillery school was reopened on a semi-secret basis.<ref name="books.google_a"/> In 1726, [[Ibrahim Muteferrika]] convinced the Grand Vizier [[Nevşehirli Damat Ibrahim Pasha]], the [[Grand Mufti]], and the clergy on the efficiency of the printing press, and Muteferrika was later granted by Sultan Ahmed III permission to publish non-religious books (despite opposition from some [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphers]] and religious leaders).<ref name="katip celebi">{{Cite web |date=5 May 2009 |title=Presentation of Katip Çelebi, Kitâb-i Cihân-nümâ li-Kâtib Çelebi |url=http://vitrine.library.uu.nl/en/texts/Rarqu54.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130212030334/http://vitrine.library.uu.nl/en/texts/Rarqu54.htm |archive-date=12 February 2013 |access-date=11 February 2013 |publisher=Utrecht University Library}}</ref> Muteferrika's press published its first book in 1729 and, by 1743, issued 17 works in 23 volumes, each having between 500 and 1,000 copies.<ref name="katip celebi"/><ref name="watson">{{Cite journal |last=Watson |first=William J. |date=1968 |title=Ibrahim Muteferrika and Turkish Incunabula |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=435–441 |doi=10.2307/596868 |jstor=596868}}</ref>

In North Africa, Spain [[Spanish conquest of Oran (1732)|conquered Oran]] from the autonomous [[Deylik of Algiers]]. The [[Beylik of Oran|Bey of Oran]] received an army from Algiers, but it failed to recapture [[Oran]]; the siege caused the deaths of 1,500 Spaniards, and even more Algerians. The Spanish also massacred many Muslim soldiers.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |page=559}}</ref> In 1792, Spain abandoned Oran, selling it to the Deylik of Algiers.

[[File:January Suchodolski - Ochakiv siege.jpg|thumb|Ottoman troops attempting to halt the advancing Russians during the [[Siege of Ochakov (1788)|Siege of Ochakov]] in 1788]]

In 1768 Russian-backed Ukrainian [[Haidamaka]]s, pursuing Polish confederates, entered [[Balta, Ukraine|Balta]], an Ottoman-controlled town on the border of Bessarabia in Ukraine, massacred its citizens, and burned the town to the ground. This action provoked the Ottoman Empire into the [[Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)|Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774]]. The [[Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca]] of 1774 ended the war and provided freedom of worship for the Christian citizens of the Ottoman-controlled provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=405}} By the late 18th century, after a number of defeats in the wars with Russia, some people in the Ottoman Empire began to conclude that the reforms of [[Peter the Great]] had given the Russians an edge, and the Ottomans would have to keep up with Western technology in order to avoid further defeats.<ref name="books.google_a"/>

[[File:Ottoman Sultan Selim III (1789).jpg|thumb|[[Selim III]] receiving dignitaries during an audience at the Gate of Felicity, [[Topkapı Palace]]. Painting by [[Konstantin Kapıdağlı]].]]

[[Selim III]] (1789–1807) made the first major attempts to [[Ottoman military reform efforts|modernise the army]], but his reforms were hampered by the religious leadership and the [[Janissary]] corps. Jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change, the Janissary [[Janissary revolts|revolted]]. Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic [[Mahmud II]], who [[Auspicious Incident|eliminated the Janissary corps]] in 1826.
[[File:Genève et Grèce - Bataille de l'Acropole par JGC Perlberg.jpg|thumb|The siege of the Acropolis in 1826–1827 during the [[Greek War of Independence]]]]
The [[Serbian revolution]] (1804–1815) marked the beginning of an era of [[Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire|national awakening]] in the [[Balkans]] during the [[Eastern Question]]. In 1811, the fundamentalist Wahhabis of Arabia, led by the al-Saud family, revolted against the Ottomans. Unable to defeat the Wahhabi rebels, the Sublime Porte had [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]] of [[Kavala]], the ''[[wali|vali]]'' (governor) of the [[Egypt Eyalet|Eyalet of Egypt]], tasked with retaking Arabia, which ended with the destruction of the [[Emirate of Diriyah]] in 1818. The [[suzerainty]] of Serbia as a hereditary monarchy under its own [[Obrenović dynasty|dynasty]] was acknowledged ''[[de jure]]'' in 1830.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Liberation, Independence And Union of Serbia And Montenegro |url=http://www.njegos.org/past/liunion.htm |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=Serb Land of Montenegro |archive-date=5 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010205052700/http://www.njegos.org/past/liunion.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Berend2003">{{Cite book |last=Berend |first=Tibor Iván |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9csmhIT_BQC&pg=PA127 |title=History Derailed: Central and Eastern Europe in the Long 19th Century |publisher=University of California Press |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-520-93209-8 |page=127 |author-link=Iván T. Berend |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151038/https://books.google.com/books?id=a9csmhIT_BQC&pg=PA127 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1821, the [[Ottoman Greece|Greeks]] [[Greek War of Independence|declared war]] on the Sultan. A rebellion that originated in Moldavia as a diversion was followed by the main revolution in the [[Peloponnese]], which, along with the northern part of the [[Gulf of Corinth]], became the first parts of the Ottoman Empire to achieve independence (in 1829). In 1830, the French invaded the [[Deylik of Algiers]]. [[Invasion of Algiers in 1830|The campaign]] took 21 days, and resulted in over 5,000 Algerian military casualties,<ref name="De Quatrebarbes-1831">De Quatrebarbes, Théodore (1831). ''Souvenirs de la campagne d'Afrique''. Dentu. p. 35.</ref> and about 2,600 French ones.<ref name="De Quatrebarbes-1831" /><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vfxltIAnVecC&q=%22Alger%22+2160+bless%C3%A9s&pg=PA286 |title=Conquête d'Alger ou pièces sur la conquête d'Alger et sur l'Algérie |date=1831 |language=fr |access-date=8 September 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151038/https://books.google.com/books?id=vfxltIAnVecC&q=%22Alger%22+2160+bless%C3%A9s&pg=PA286 |url-status=live }}</ref> Before the French invasion the total population of Algeria was most likely between 3,000,000 and 5,000,000.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kateb |first=Kamel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yEvQZ7bdybgC&pg=PA11 |title=Européens, "indigènes" et juifs en Algérie (1830–1962): représentations et réalités des populations |date=2001 |publisher=INED |isbn=978-2-7332-0145-9 |language=fr}}</ref> By 1873, the population of Algeria (excluding several hundred thousand newly arrived French settlers) had decreased to 2,172,000.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guyot |first=Yves |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K4M5rK-mWFoC&dq=2%2C172%2C000+alg%C3%A9rie&pg=PA41-IA2 |title=Lettres sur la politique coloniale |date=1885 |publisher=C. Reinwald |isbn=9798862369458 |language=fr |access-date=8 September 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151115/https://books.google.com/books?id=K4M5rK-mWFoC&dq=2%2C172%2C000+alg%C3%A9rie&pg=PA41-IA2 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1831, [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt]] revolted against Sultan [[Mahmud II]] due to the latter's refusal to grant him the governorships of [[Syria (region)|Greater Syria]] and [[Crete]], which the Sultan had promised him in exchange for sending military assistance to put down the [[Greek War of Independence|Greek revolt]] (1821–1829) that ultimately ended with the formal [[London Protocol (1830)|independence of Greece]] in 1830. It was a costly enterprise for Muhammad Ali, who had lost his fleet at the [[Battle of Navarino]] in 1827. Thus began the first [[Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833)]], during which the French-trained army of Muhammad Ali, under the command of his son [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim Pasha]], defeated the Ottoman Army as it marched into [[Anatolia]], reaching the city of [[Kütahya]] within {{cvt|200|mi|km|order=flip}} of the capital, Constantinople.<ref name="Effraim">{{cite book |last=Karsh |first=Effraim |title=Islamic Imperialism A History |location=New Haven |publisher=Yale University Press |date=2006}}</ref>{{rp|95}} In desperation, Sultan [[Mahmud II]] appealed to the empire's traditional arch-rival Russia for help, asking Emperor [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] to send an expeditionary force to assist him.<ref name="Effraim" />{{rp|96}} In return for signing the [[Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi]], the Russians sent the expeditionary force which deterred Ibrahim Pasha from marching any further towards Constantinople.<ref name="Effraim" />{{rp|96}} Under the terms of the [[Convention of Kütahya]], signed on 5 May 1833, Muhammad Ali agreed to abandon his campaign against the Sultan, in exchange for which he was made the ''[[wali|vali]]'' (governor) of the ''[[vilayet]]s'' (provinces) of [[Crete]], [[Aleppo]], [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]], [[Damascus]] and [[Sidon]] (the latter four comprising modern [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]]), and given the right to collect taxes in [[Adana]].<ref name="Effraim" />{{rp|96}} Had it not been for the Russian intervention, Sultan [[Mahmud II]] could have faced the risk of being overthrown and Muhammad Ali could have even become the new Sultan. These events marked the beginning of a recurring pattern where the Sublime Porte needed the help of foreign powers to protect itself.<ref name="Effraim" />{{rp|95–96}}

In 1839, the [[Sublime Porte]] attempted to take back what it lost to the ''[[de facto]]'' autonomous, but ''[[de jure]]'' still Ottoman [[Egypt Eyalet|Eyalet of Egypt]], but its forces were initially defeated, which led to the [[Oriental Crisis of 1840]]. Muhammad Ali had close relations with [[July Monarchy|France]], and the prospect of him becoming the Sultan of Egypt was widely viewed as putting the entire [[Levant]] into the French sphere of influence.<ref name=Effraim/>{{rp|96}} As the Sublime Porte had proved itself incapable of defeating Muhammad Ali,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Battle of Konya {{!}} Summary |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Konya |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231019135832/https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Konya |archive-date=19 October 2023 |access-date=17 October 2023 |website=Britannica |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fahmy |first=Khaled |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ID7-26p9G78C&dq=Khaled+Fahmy.+All+the+Pasha%27s+Men%3A+Mehmed+Ali%2C+His+Army+and+the+Making+of+Modern+Egypt.+Cairo%3A+The+American+University+in+Cairo+Press%2C+2002&pg=PR3 |title=All The Pasha's Men: Mehmed Ali, Hisarmy And The Making Of Modern Egypt |date=2002 |publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press |isbn=978-977-424-696-8 |language=en |access-date=21 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231024034304/https://books.google.com/books?id=ID7-26p9G78C&dq=Khaled+Fahmy.+All+the+Pasha%27s+Men%3A+Mehmed+Ali%2C+His+Army+and+the+Making+of+Modern+Egypt.+Cairo%3A+The+American+University+in+Cairo+Press%2C+2002&pg=PR3 |archive-date=24 October 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> the [[British Empire]] and [[Austrian Empire]] provided military assistance, and the second [[Egyptian–Ottoman War (1839–1841)]] ended with Ottoman victory and the restoration of Ottoman suzerainty over [[Egypt Eyalet]] and the [[Levant]].<ref name=Effraim/>{{rp|96}}

By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the "[[sick man of Europe]]". Three suzerain states – the [[Principality of Serbia]], [[Wallachia]] and [[Moldavia]] – moved towards ''de jure'' independence during the 1860s and 1870s.

=== Decline and modernisation (1828–1908) ===
{{Main|Decline of the Ottoman Empire}}
[[File:Opening ceremony of the First Ottoman Parliament at the Dolmabahce Palace in 1876.jpg|thumb|Opening ceremony of the First [[General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Parliament]] at the [[Dolmabahçe Palace]] in 1876. The [[First Constitutional Era]] lasted only two years until 1878. The Ottoman Constitution and Parliament were [[Second Constitutional Era|restored 30 years later]] with the [[Young Turk Revolution]] in 1908.]]

During the [[Tanzimat]] period (1839–1876), the government's series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern [[Conscription in the Ottoman Empire|conscripted army]], banking system reforms, the decriminalization of homosexuality, the replacement of religious law with secular law,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ishtiaq |first=Hussain |title=The Tanzimat: Secular Reforms in the Ottoman Empire |url=http://faith-matters.org/images/stories/fm-publications/the-tanzimat-final-web.pdf |publisher=Faith Matters |access-date=11 October 2011 |archive-date=17 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017061131/http://faith-matters.org/images/stories/fm-publications/the-tanzimat-final-web.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and guilds with modern factories. The Ottoman Ministry of Post was established in Istanbul in 1840. American inventor [[Samuel Morse]] received an Ottoman patent for the telegraph in 1847, issued by Sultan [[Abdülmecid I|Abdülmecid]], who personally tested the invention.<ref>Yakup Bektas, [https://psi427.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Bektas%2C%20Ott%20Telegraphy%2C%201847-1880%20%282000%29.pdf "The sultan's messenger: Cultural constructions of ottoman telegraphy, 1847–1880."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210909033749/https://psi427.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Bektas,%20Ott%20Telegraphy,%201847-1880%20(2000).pdf |date=9 September 2021 }} ''Technology and Culture'' 41.4 (2000): 669–696.</ref> The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the ''[[Kanûn-u Esâsî]]''. The empire's [[First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)|First Constitutional era]] was short-lived. The parliament survived for only two years before the sultan suspended it.

The empire's Christian population, owing to their higher educational levels, started to pull ahead of the Muslim majority, leading to much resentment.<ref name="books.google_b">{{Cite book |last=Stone |first=Norman |title=Russia War, Peace And Diplomacy: Essays in Honour of John Erickson |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |date=2005 |isbn=978-0-297-84913-1 |editor-last=Mark Erickson, Ljubica Erickson |page=95 |chapter=Turkey in the Russian Mirror |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1861, there were 571 primary and 94 secondary schools for Ottoman Christians, with 140,000 pupils in total, a figure that vastly exceeded the number of Muslim children in school at the time, who were further hindered by the amount of time spent learning Arabic and Islamic theology.<ref name="books.google_b"/> Author Norman Stone suggests that the Arabic alphabet, in which Turkish was written [[Turkish alphabet reform|until 1928]], was ill-suited to reflect the sounds of Turkish (which is a Turkic as opposed to Semitic language), which imposed further difficulty on Turkish children.<ref name="books.google_b"/> In turn, Christians' higher educational levels allowed them to play a larger role in the economy, with the rise in prominence of groups such as the [[Sursock family]] indicative of this.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sursock House |url=https://sursockhouse.com/ |access-date=29 May 2018 |archive-date=25 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180525062827/https://sursockhouse.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="books.google_b"/> In 1911, of the 654 wholesale companies in Istanbul, 528 were owned by ethnic Greeks.<ref name="books.google_b"/> In many cases, Christians and Jews gained protection from European consuls and citizenship, meaning they were protected from Ottoman law and not subject to the same economic regulations as their Muslim counterparts.{{Sfn|Rogan|2011|page=93}}

[[File:Turkish troops storming Fort Shefketil (cropped).jpg|Ottoman troops storming [[Shekvetili|Fort Shefketil]] during the [[Crimean War]] of 1853–1856|thumb]]

The [[Crimean War]] (1853–1856) was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman Empire. The financial burden of the war led the Ottoman state to issue [[Ottoman public debt|foreign loans]] amounting to 5{{nbsp}}million pounds sterling on 4 August 1854.<ref>{{Cite book |last=V. Necla Geyikdagi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fGRMOzJZ4aEC&pg=PA32 |title=Foreign Investment in the Ottoman Empire: International Trade and Relations 1854–1914 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |date=2011 |isbn=978-1-84885-461-1 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151118/https://books.google.com/books?id=fGRMOzJZ4aEC&pg=PA32 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|32}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Douglas Arthur Howard |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofturkey00doug |title=The History of Turkey |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |date=2001 |isbn=978-0-313-30708-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofturkey00doug/page/71 71] |access-date=11 February 2013 |url-access=registration}}</ref>{{rp|71}} The war caused an exodus of the [[Crimean Tatars]], about 200,000 of whom moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=Bryan Glynn |date=2000 |title=Hijra and forced migration from nineteenth-century Russia to the Ottoman Empire |journal=Cahiers du Monde Russe |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=79–108 |doi=10.4000/monderusse.39 |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|79–108}} Toward the end of the [[Caucasian Wars]], 90% of the [[Circassians]] were [[Ethnic cleansing of Circassians|ethnically cleansed]]<ref>Memoirs of Miliutin, "the plan of action decided upon for 1860 was to cleanse [ochistit'] the mountain zone of its indigenous population", per Richmond, W. ''The Northwest Caucasus: Past, Present, and Future''. Routledge. 2008.</ref> and exiled from their homelands in the Caucasus, fleeing to the Ottoman Empire,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richmond |first=Walter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LQJyLvMWB8MC&pg=PA79 |title=The Northwest Caucasus: Past, Present, Future |publisher=Taylor & Francis US |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-415-77615-8 |page=79 |quote=the plan of action decided upon for 1860 was to cleanse [ochistit'] the mountain zone of its indigenous population |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151038/https://books.google.com/books?id=LQJyLvMWB8MC&pg=PA79 |url-status=live }}</ref> resulting in the settlement of 500,000 to 700,000 Circassians in the Ottoman Empire.{{sfn|Hamed-Troyansky|2024|p=49}} Crimean Tatar refugees in the late 19th century played an especially notable role in seeking to modernise Ottoman education and in first promoting both [[Pan-Turkism]] and a sense of Turkish nationalism.<ref name="ReferenceA">Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pp. 86–100 from ''Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy'' edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 p. 95.</ref>

[[File:Charles Porion - The kings of Europe in Paris for the opening of the Exposition of 1867.jpg|thumb|The Kings of Europe are in [[Paris]] ([[Napoleon III]] is at the centre, Sultan [[Abdulaziz]] is second from right) for the opening of the [[Exposition Universelle (1867)|Universal Exposition of 1867]].|left|upright=1.3]]

In this period, the Ottoman Empire spent only small amounts of public funds on education; for example, in 1860–1861 only 0.2% of the total budget was invested in education.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-50718-0}}</ref>{{rp|50}} As the Ottoman state attempted to modernize its infrastructure and army in response to outside threats, it opened itself up to a different kind of threat: that of creditors. As the historian Eugene Rogan has written, "the single greatest threat to the independence of the Middle East" in the 19th century "was not the armies of Europe but its banks".{{Sfn|Rogan|2011|page=105}} The Ottoman state, which had begun taking on debt with the Crimean War, was forced to declare bankruptcy in 1875.{{Sfn|Rogan|2011|page=106}} By 1881, the Ottoman Empire agreed to have its debt controlled by the [[Ottoman Public Debt Administration]], a council of European men with presidency alternating between France and Britain. The body controlled swaths of the Ottoman economy, and used its position to ensure that European capital continued to penetrate the empire, often to the detriment of local Ottoman interests.{{Sfn|Rogan|2011|page=106}}

[[File:Ottomans 1875.png|thumb|The Ottoman Empire in 1875 under Sultan [[Abdulaziz]]]]

The Ottoman [[bashi-bazouk]]s suppressed the [[April Uprising|Bulgarian uprising]] of 1876, massacring up to 100,000 people in the process.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jelavich |first1=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LBYriPYyfUoC&q=massacre+bulgarians++1876&pg=PA139 |title=The Establishment of the Balkan National States, 1804–1920 |last2=Jelavich |first2=Barbara |date=1986 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-80360-9 |access-date=18 November 2020 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151039/https://books.google.com/books?id=LBYriPYyfUoC&q=massacre+bulgarians++1876&pg=PA139 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|139}} The [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)]] ended with a decisive victory for Russia. As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply: [[Principality of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire; [[United Principalities|Romania]] achieved full independence; and [[History of Serbia|Serbia]] and [[Montenegro]] finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories. In 1878, [[Austria-Hungary]] unilaterally occupied the Ottoman provinces of [[Bosnia Vilayet|Bosnia-Herzegovina]] and [[Sanjak of Novi Pazar|Novi Pazar]].

British Prime Minister [[Benjamin Disraeli]] advocated restoring the Ottoman territories on the Balkan Peninsula during the [[Congress of Berlin]], and in return, Britain assumed the administration of [[Cyprus]] in 1878.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=A.J.P. |url=https://archive.org/details/struggleformaste00ajpt/page/228 |title=The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848–1918 |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1955 |isbn=978-0-19-822101-2 |location=Oxford |author-link=A. J. P. Taylor}}</ref>{{rp|228–254}} Britain later sent troops to [[Egypt]] in 1882 to put down the [[Urabi Revolt]] (Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]] was too paranoid to mobilize his own army, fearing this would result in a coup d'état), effectively gaining control in both territories. Abdul Hamid II was so fearful of a coup that he did not allow his army to conduct war games, lest this serve as cover for a coup, but he did see the need for military mobilization. In 1883, a German military mission under General Baron [[Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz|Colmar von der Goltz]] arrived to train the Ottoman Army, leading to the so-called "Goltz generation" of German-trained officers, who played a notable role in the politics of the empire's last years.<ref>{{cite book |last=Akmeșe |first=Handan Nezir |title=The Birth of Modern Turkey The Ottoman Military and the March to World I |location=London |publisher=I.B Tauris}}</ref>{{rp|24}}

From 1894 to 1896, between 100,000 and 300,000 Armenians living throughout the empire were killed in what became known as the [[Hamidian massacres]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Akçam |first=Taner |title=A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility |publisher=Metropolitan Books |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-8050-7932-6 |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/shamefulactarmen00ak/page/42 |author-link=Taner Akçam}}</ref>{{rp|42}}

In 1897 the population was 19{{nbsp}}million, of whom 14{{nbsp}}million (74%) were Muslim. An additional 20{{nbsp}}million lived in provinces that remained under the sultan's nominal suzerainty but were entirely outside his actual power. One by one the Porte lost nominal authority. They included Egypt, Tunisia, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Lebanon.<ref>Shaw, ''History of the Ottoman Empire'' 2:236.</ref>

As the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank, 7–9{{nbsp}}million Muslims from its former territories in the Caucasus, [[Crimea]], Balkans, and the [[Mediterranean]] islands migrated to Anatolia and [[Eastern Thrace]].<ref name="Karpat2004">{{Cite book |last=Kemal H Karpat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cL4Ua6gGyWUC |title=Studies on Turkish politics and society: selected articles and essays |publisher=Brill |date=2004 |isbn=978-90-04-13322-8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Quataert |first=Donald |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |editor-last=İnalcık |editor-first=Halil |volume=2 |page=762 |chapter=The Age of Reforms, 1812–1914 |editor-last2=Donald Quataert}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Shams El-Din |first=Osama |title=A Military History of Modern Egypt from the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a479427.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106154526/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a479427.pdf |archive-date=6 November 2023 |access-date=17 October 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Trevor N. Dupuy |title=The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers |year=1993 |isbn=978-0062700568 |pages=851}}</ref> After the Empire lost the [[First Balkan War]] (1912–1913), it lost all its [[Balkan peninsula|Balkan]] territories except [[East Thrace]] (European Turkey). This resulted in around 400,000 Muslims fleeing with the retreating Ottoman armies (with many dying from [[cholera]] brought by the soldiers), and 400,000 non-Muslims fled territory still under Ottoman rule.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Zürcher |first1=Erik-Jan |title=Greek and Turkish refugees and deportees 1912–1924 |url=http://tulp.leidenuniv.nl/content_docs/wap/ejz18.pdf |url-status=dead |website=Turkology Update Leiden Project Working Papers Archive |publisher=[[Universiteit Leiden]] |date=January 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716155929/http://tulp.leidenuniv.nl/content_docs/wap/ejz18.pdf |archive-date=16 July 2007 |location=Leiden, Netherlands |access-date=21 June 2009 }}</ref> [[Justin McCarthy (American historian)|Justin McCarthy]] estimates that from 1821 to 1922, 5.5{{nbsp}}million Muslims died in southeastern Europe, with the expulsion of 5{{nbsp}}million.<ref name="McCarthy1995">{{Cite book |last=Justin McCarthy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1ZntAAAAMAAJ |title=Death and exile: the ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922 |publisher=Darwin Press |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-87850-094-9 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151042/https://books.google.com/books?id=1ZntAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Carmichael2012">{{Cite book |last=Carmichael |first=Cathie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ybORI4KWwdIC |title=Ethnic Cleansing in the Balkans: Nationalism and the Destruction of Tradition |publisher=Routledge |date=2012 |isbn=978-1-134-47953-5 |page=21 |quote=During the period from 1821 to 1922 alone, Justin McCarthy estimates that the ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Muslims led to the death of several million individuals and the expulsion of a similar number. |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151042/https://books.google.com/books?id=ybORI4KWwdIC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Buturovic2010">{{Cite book |last=Buturovic |first=Amila |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kck_-B7MubIC |title=Islam in the Balkans: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-980381-1 |page=9 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151655/https://books.google.com/books?id=Kck_-B7MubIC |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Defeat and dissolution (1908–1922) ===
{{Main|Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire in World War I}}

==== Young Turk movement ====
[[File:Declaration of the 1908 Revolution in Ottoman Empire.png|thumb|Declaration of the [[Young Turk Revolution]] by the leaders of the Ottoman [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millets]] in 1908]]

The defeat and [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] (1908{{mdash}}1922) began with the [[Second Constitutional Era]], a moment of hope and promise established with the [[Young Turk Revolution]]. It restored the [[Constitution of the Ottoman Empire]] and brought in [[List of political parties in the Ottoman Empire|multi-party politics]] with a [[Elections in the Ottoman Empire|two-stage electoral system]] ([[Ottoman electoral law|electoral law]]) under the [[General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman parliament]]. The constitution offered hope by freeing the empire's citizens to modernise the state's institutions, rejuvenate its strength, and enable it to hold its own against outside powers. Its guarantee of liberties promised to dissolve inter-communal tensions and transform the empire into a more harmonious place.<ref>{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Michael A.|title=Shattering Empires: The Clash and Collapse of the Ottoman and Russian Empires 1908–1918 |date=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521149167|pages=1, 324}}</ref> Instead, this period became the story of the twilight struggle of the Empire.

Members of [[Young Turks]] movement who had once gone underground now established their parties.<ref>{{cite book |first=Edward |last=Erickson |title=Ottomans and Armenians: A Study in Counterinsurgency |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2013 |isbn=978-1137362209 | page=32 }}</ref> Among them "[[Committee of Union and Progress]]", and "[[Freedom and Accord Party]]" were major parties. On the other end of the spectrum were ethnic parties, which included [[Jewish Social Democratic Labour Party in Palestine (Poale Zion)|Poale Zion]], [[Al-Fatat]], and [[Armenian national movement]] organised under [[Armenian Revolutionary Federation]]. Profiting from the civil strife, Austria-Hungary officially annexed [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] in 1908. The last of the [[Census in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman censuses]] was performed in [[1914 population statistics for the Ottoman Empire|1914]]. Despite [[Ottoman military reforms|military reforms]] which reconstituted the [[Ottoman Modern Army]], the Empire lost its North African territories and the Dodecanese in the [[Italo-Turkish War]] (1911) and almost all of its European territories in the [[Balkan Wars]] (1912–1913). The Empire faced continuous unrest in the years leading up to [[World War I]], including the [[31 March Incident]] and two further coups in [[1912 Ottoman coup d'état|1912]] and [[1913 Ottoman coup d'état|1913]].

==== World War I ====
{{Main|Ottoman entry into World War I|Ottoman Empire in World War I}}
[[File:M 113 5 amiral Souchon et ses officiers.jpg|thumb|Admiral [[Wilhelm Souchon]], who commanded the [[Black Sea raid]] on 29 October 1914, and his officers in Ottoman naval uniforms]]

The Ottoman Empire entered [[World War I]] on the side of the [[Central Powers]] and was ultimately defeated.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Findley |first=Carter Vaughn |title=Turkey, Islam, Nationalism and Modernity: A History, 1789–2007 |date=2010 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-15260-9 |location=New Haven |page=200}}</ref> The Ottoman participation in the war began with the combined [[Black Sea Raid|German-Ottoman surprise attack]] on the [[Black Sea]] coast of the [[Russian Empire]] on 29 October 1914. Following the attack, the Russian Empire (2 November 1914)<ref name="oxfordreference-timeline">{{Cite book |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191737640.timeline.0001 |title=Timeline: Ottoman Empire (c. 1285 – 1923) |date=2012 |publisher=[[Oxford Reference]] |isbn=978-0-19-173764-0 |access-date=7 June 2021 |archive-date=14 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514171439/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191737640.timeline.0001 |url-status=live }}</ref> and its allies [[French Third Republic|France]] (5 November 1914)<ref name="oxfordreference-timeline"/> and the [[British Empire]] (5 November 1914)<ref name="oxfordreference-timeline"/> declared war on the Ottoman Empire. Also on 5 November 1914, the British government changed the status of the [[Khedivate of Egypt]] and [[Cyprus Convention|Cyprus]], which were [[de jure]] Ottoman territories prior to the war, to [[British protectorate]]s.

The Ottomans successfully defended the [[Dardanelles]] strait during the [[Gallipoli campaign]] (1915–1916) and achieved initial victories against British forces in the first two years of the [[Mesopotamian campaign]], such as the [[Siege of Kut]] (1915–1916); but the [[Arab Revolt]] (1916–1918) turned the tide against the Ottomans in the Middle East. In the [[Caucasus campaign]], however, the Russian forces had the upper hand from the beginning, especially after the [[Battle of Sarikamish]] (1914–1915). Russian forces advanced into northeastern [[Anatolia]] and controlled the major cities there until retreating from World War I with the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] following the [[Russian Revolution]] in 1917.

===== Genocides =====
{{Main|Late Ottoman genocides|Armenian genocide|Greek genocide|Seyfo}}
[[File:Column of deportees walking through Harput vilayet during the Armenian genocide.jpg|thumb|The [[Armenian genocide]] was the result of the Ottoman government's [[Temporary Law of Deportation|deportation]] and [[ethnic cleansing]] policies regarding its [[Armenians in the Ottoman Empire|Armenian]] citizens after the [[Battle of Sarikamish]] (1914–1915) and the collapse of the [[Caucasus campaign|Caucasus Front]] against the [[Imperial Russian Army]] and [[Armenian volunteer units]] during [[World War I]]. An estimated 600,000<ref name="britannica-ag">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Armenian-Genocide/Genocide|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Armenian Genocide|access-date=28 January 2023|archive-date=1 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101025841/https://www.britannica.com/event/Armenian-Genocide/Genocide|url-status=live}}</ref> to more than 1 million,<ref name="britannica-ag"/> or up to 1.5 million<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.umd.umich.edu/dept/armenian/facts/genocide.html|title=Fact Sheet: Armenian Genocide|publisher=University of Michigan|access-date=15 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818233348/http://www.umd.umich.edu/dept/armenian/facts/genocide.html|archive-date=18 August 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Freedman|first=Jeri|title=The Armenian genocide|year=2009|publisher=Rosen Pub. Group|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4042-1825-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cuqxYldvClQC|edition=1st|access-date=2 June 2021|archive-date=14 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151655/https://books.google.com/books?id=cuqxYldvClQC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Totten, Samuel, Paul Robert Bartrop, Steven L. Jacobs (eds.) ''Dictionary of Genocide''. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008, p. 19. {{ISBN|0-313-34642-9}}.</ref> people were killed.]]

In 1915 the Ottoman government and Kurdish tribes in the region started the extermination of its ethnic Armenian population, resulting in the deaths of up to 1.5{{nbsp}}million Armenians in the [[Armenian genocide]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bijak |first1=Jakub |title=The Armenian Genocide Legacy |last2=Lubman |first2=Sarah |date=2016 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-1-137-56163-3 |page=39 |language=en |chapter=The Disputed Numbers: In Search of the Demographic Basis for Studies of Armenian Population Losses, 1915–1923}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Peter Balakian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DrYoyAM3PBYC&pg=PR17 |title=The Burning Tigris |publisher=HarperCollins |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-06-186017-1 |page=xvii |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151656/https://books.google.com/books?id=DrYoyAM3PBYC&pg=PR17 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Quataert |first=Donald |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922 |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition) |page=186}}; {{Cite journal |last1=Schaller |first1=Dominik J |last2=Zimmerer |first2=Jürgen |date=2008 |title=Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.1080/14623520801950820 |s2cid=71515470}}</ref> The genocide was carried out during and after World War I and implemented in two phases: the wholesale killing of the able-bodied male population through massacre and subjection of army conscripts to forced labour, followed by the deportation of women, children, the elderly and infirm on [[death march]]es leading to the [[Syrian desert]]. Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, [[Rape during the Armenian Genocide|rape]], and systematic massacre.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Walker |first=Christopher J. |title=Armenia: The Survival of A Nation |pages=200–203 |date=1980 |place=London |publisher=Croom Helm}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bryce |first1=Viscount James |title=The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, 1915–1916: Documents Presented to Viscount Grey of Falloden |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H0mfmdThGLAC&pg=PA636 |pages=635–649 |date=2000 |editor-last=Sarafian |editor-first=Ara |edition=uncensored |place=Princeton |publisher=[[Gomidas Institute]] |isbn=978-0-9535191-5-6 |last2=Toynbee |first2=Arnold |author-link=James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce}}</ref> Large-scale massacres were also committed against the Empire's [[Greek genocide|Greek]] and [[Assyrian genocide|Assyrian]] minorities as part of the same campaign of ethnic cleansing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schaller |first1=Dominik J |last2=Zimmerer |first2=Jürgen |date=2008 |title=Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies&nbsp;– introduction |url=http://bridging-the-divide.org/sites/default/files/files/Late%20Ottoman%20genocides-%20the%20dissolution%20of%20the%20Ottoman%20Empire%20and%20Young%20Turkish%20population%20and%20extermination%20policies%281%29.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.1080/14623520801950820 |via=Bridging the Divide |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103172211/http://bridging-the-divide.org/sites/default/files/files/Late%20Ottoman%20genocides-%20the%20dissolution%20of%20the%20Ottoman%20Empire%20and%20Young%20Turkish%20population%20and%20extermination%20policies%281%29.pdf |archive-date=3 November 2013 |quote=The genocidal quality of the murderous campaigns against Greeks and Assyrians is obvious |s2cid=71515470 |accessdate=6 June 2013 }}</ref>

===== Arab Revolt =====
{{Main|Middle Eastern theatre of World War I|Arab Revolt}}

The [[Arab Revolt]] began in 1916 with British support. It turned the tide against the Ottomans on the Middle Eastern front, where they seemed to have the upper hand during the first two years of the war. On the basis of the [[McMahon–Hussein Correspondence]], an agreement between the British government and [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca]], the revolt was officially initiated at Mecca on 10 June 1916.{{efn|Though the revolt was officially initiated on 10 June, bin Ali's sons [[Ali of Hejaz|'Ali]] and [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]] had already initiated operations at Medina starting on 5 June.<ref>Eliezer Tauber, ''The Arab Movements in World War I,'' Routledge, 2014 {{ISBN|978-1-135-19978-4}} p. 80-81</ref>}} The Arab nationalist goal was to create a single unified and independent [[Arab state]] stretching from [[Aleppo]], Syria, to [[Aden]], Yemen, which the British promised to recognise.

The [[Sharifian Army]], led by Hussein and the [[Hashemites]], with military backing from the British [[Egyptian Expeditionary Force]], successfully fought and expelled the Ottoman military presence from much of the [[Hejaz]] and [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]]. The rebellion eventually took [[Damascus]] and set up a short-lived monarchy led by [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]], a son of Hussein.

Following the terms of the 1916 [[Sykes–Picot Agreement]], the British and French later partitioned the Middle East into [[League of Nations mandate|mandate territories]]. There was no unified Arab state, much to Arab nationalists' anger. Palestine, Iraq, Lebanon and Syria became British and French mandates.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sykes-Picot Agreement {{!}} Map, History, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Sykes-Picot-Agreement |access-date=22 May 2024 |website=Britannica |language=en |archive-date=22 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522080149/https://www.britannica.com/event/Sykes-Picot-Agreement |url-status=live }}</ref>

===== Treaty of Sèvres and Turkish War of Independence =====
[[File:Sultanvahideddin.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mehmed VI]], the last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, leaving the country after the abolition of the Ottoman sultanate, 17 November 1922]]

Defeated in World War I, the Ottoman Empire signed the [[Armistice of Mudros]] on 30 October 1918. [[Occupation of Istanbul|Istanbul was occupied]] by combined British, French, Italian, and Greek forces. In May 1919, Greece also [[Occupation of Smyrna|took control of the area around Smyrna]] (now İzmir).

The [[partition of the Ottoman Empire]] was finalized under the terms of the 1920 [[Treaty of Sèvres]]. This treaty, as designed in the [[Conference of London (1920)|Conference of London]], allowed the Sultan to retain his position and title. Anatolia's status was problematic given the occupied forces.

A nationalist opposition arose in the [[Turkish national movement]]. It won the [[Turkish War of Independence]] (1919–1923) under the leadership of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]] (later given the surname "Atatürk"). The sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922, and the last sultan, [[Mehmed VI]] (reigned 1918–1922), left the country on 17 November 1922. The [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] was [[History of Turkey#Republic of Turkey|established]] in its place on 29 October 1923, in the new capital city of [[Ankara]]. The [[Ottoman Caliphate|caliphate]] was abolished on 3 March 1924.<ref name="Ozoglu">{{Cite book |last=Hakan Özoğlu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cw5V1c1ej_cC&pg=PA8 |title=From Caliphate to Secular State: Power Struggle in the Early Turkish Republic |publisher=ABC-CLIO |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-313-37957-4 |page=8 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151656/https://books.google.com/books?id=Cw5V1c1ej_cC&pg=PA8 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Howard |first=Douglas A. |title=A History of the Ottoman Empire |date=2016b |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-10747-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=e57eDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA318 318]}}</ref>