Editing Opole (section)

==History==
===In Medieval Poland===
[[File:Opole, rokonstrukcja grodu X-XII w.jpg|thumb|left|Contemporary model of the early medieval Polish stronghold in Opole]]
[[File:Opole 0011 - mury przy Katedrze Świętego Krzyża.jpg|thumb|left|A fragment of [[medieval]] defensive walls that once surrounded Opole]]
Opole's history begins in the 8th century. At this time, according to the archeological excavations,<ref>B. Gediga, ''Początki i rozwój wczesnośredniowiecznego ośrodka miejskiego na Ostrówku w Opolu'', [[Slavia Antiqua]] t. 16, Wrocław 1970.</ref> the first settlement was founded on the Ostrówek – the northern part of the Pasieka Island in the middle of the [[Oder River|Oder river]]. In the early 10th century it developed into one of the main "[[Gord (archaeology)|gords]]" of the [[Lechites|Lechitic]] (Polish) [[Opolans]] tribe.

At the end of the century [[Silesia]] became part of Poland and was ruled by the [[Piast dynasty]]; the land of the pagan Opolanie was conquered by Duke [[Mieszko I]] in 992. From the 11th–12th centuries it was also a [[castellany]]. After the death of Duke [[Władysław II the Exile]], Silesia was divided in 1163 between two Piast lines – the [[Wrocław]] line in [[Lower Silesia]] and the Opole-[[Racibórz]] of Upper Silesia. Opole would [[Duchy of Opole|become a duchy]] in 1172 and would share much in common with the [[Duchy of Racibórz]], with which it was often combined. In 1281 Upper Silesia was divided further between the heirs of the dukes. The Duchy of Opole was temporarily reestablished in 1290.

In the early 13th century, Duke [[Casimir I of Opole]] decided to move the settlement from the Pasieka Island to the right shore of the Oder river (since the 17th century, the old [[stream bed]] of the Oder, known as the Młynówka). All of the inhabitants had to be moved in order to accommodate the castle that was built in place of the old city.<ref name="Opole - Monografia miasta">W. Dziewulski, F. Hawranek, ''Opole - Monografia miasta'', [[Silesian Institute in Opole|Instytut Śląski]] Opole 1975, p. 57.</ref> Former inhabitants of Ostrówek, together with German merchants that immigrated from the West, received the first town rights probably as early as around 1217, although this date is disputed.<ref>This opinion is shared i.e. by W. Dziewulski, F. Hawranek, ''Opole - Monografia miasta'', [[Silesian Institute in Opole|Instytut Śląski]] Opole 1975, p. 57 and G. A. Stenzel, ''Geschichte Schlesiens'', T1. 1, Breslau 1853, p. 41. The opposite opinion is presented i.e. by K. Buczek, ''Targi i miasta na prawie polskim (okres wczesnośredniowieczny)'', Wrocław 1964, p. 114.</ref> Opole received [[German town law]] in 1254, which was expanded with Neumarkt law in 1327. Opole developed during the rule of duke [[Bolko I of Opole]]. The castle was finally completed around this time and new buildings, including the [[city walls]] and the Holy Cross Church, were constructed.

[[File:Oppeln 1535.jpg|thumb|The oldest known view of Opole seen from southeast, circa 1535]]

Along with most of [[Silesia]], in 1327 the Duchy of Opole came under the sovereignty of the [[Kingdom of Bohemia]], itself part of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. In 1521 the Duchy of Opole inherited the Duchy of [[Racibórz]] (''Ratibor''), by then also known by its German equivalent – Oppeln. The second castle of Opole was probably founded in the 14th century by duke [[Vladislaus II of Opole|Vladislaus II]], though some sources claim that it was originally a wooden stronghold of Opole's [[castellan]] dating into 12th century.<ref name="Opole - Monografia miasta p. 58–60">W. Dziewulski, F. Hawranek, ''Opole - Monografia miasta'', [[Silesian Institute in Opole|Instytut Śląski]] Opole 1975, pp. 58–60.</ref>

===Austrian Habsburgs and Polish Vasas rule===
With the death of King [[Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia|Ludvík II]] of [[Kingdom of Bohemia|Bohemia]] at the [[Battle of Mohács]], Silesia was inherited by [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]], placing Opole under the sovereignty of the [[Habsburg monarchy]] of [[Austria]]. The Habsburgs took control of the region in 1532 after the last Piast duke of Opole, [[Jan II the Good]], died. At that time the city was still mainly Polish-speaking (around 63%), with other nationalities represented mainly by Germans, Czechs and Jews.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}} The last two dukes of Opole, [[Nicholas II of Niemodlin|Nicholas II]] and Janusz II the Good, did not master the German language.<ref name="Opole - Monografia miasta p.78">W. Dziewulski, F. Hawranek, ''Opole - Monografia miasta'', [[Silesian Institute in Opole|Instytut Śląski]] Opole 1975, p.78.</ref>

Beginning in 1532 the Habsburgs pawned the duchy to different rulers including several [[monarchs of Poland]] (see [[Dukes of Opole]]). After the [[Deluge (history)|Swedish invasion of Poland]], in 1655 the King of Poland, [[John II Casimir Vasa]], stayed with his entire court in Opole. In Opole in November 1655, the [[Universal (act)|Universal]] of Opole (''Uniwersał opolski'') was issued by the King, calling for Poles to rise against the Swedes, who at that time occupied a large part of Poland.
[[File:Oppeln F.B. Werner.png|thumb|18th-century view of Opole]]
With the abdication of King [[John II Casimir]] of [[Crown of the Kingdom of Poland|Poland]] as the last Duke of Opole in 1668, the region passed to the direct control of the Habsburgs. At the beginning of the 18th century, the German population of Opole was estimated at 20%.<ref name="Opole - Monografia miasta p.159">W. Dziewulski, F. Hawranek, ''Opole - Monografia miasta'', [[Silesian Institute in Opole|Instytut Śląski]] Opole 1975, p.159.</ref>

===In Prussian Silesia===
King [[Frederick II of Prussia]] conquered most of Silesia from Austria in 1740 during the [[Silesian Wars]]; Prussian control was confirmed in the [[Peace of Breslau]] in 1742. In the 18th century, Opole belonged to the tax inspection region of [[Prudnik]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-11-16 |title=Historia Powiatu Prudnickiego - Starostwo Powiatowe w Prudniku |url=http://www.powiatprudnicki.pl/powiatprudnicki-historiapowiatu.html |access-date=2021-12-07 |website= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116133028/http://www.powiatprudnicki.pl/powiatprudnicki-historiapowiatu.html |archive-date=16 November 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Under Prussian rule the ethnic structure of the city began to change. In the early 20th century the number of Polish and bilingual citizens of Opole, according to the official German statistics, varied between 25% and 31%.<ref name="Opole - Monografia miasta p. 263–268">W. Dziewulski, F. Hawranek, ''Opole - Monografia miasta'', [[Silesian Institute in Opole|Instytut Śląski]] Opole 1975, p. 263–268".</ref> Nonetheless, Opole remained an important cultural, social and political center for the Poles of Upper Silesia. From 1849 the Polish newspaper ''Gazeta Wiejska dla Górnego Śląska'' was published in Opole. Polish reporter and opponent of [[Germanisation]] [[Bronisław Koraszewski]] founded the newspaper ''Gazeta Opolska'' in 1890 and the People's Bank in Opole (''Opolski Bank Ludowy'') in 1897.<ref>T. Hunt Tooley, ''National Identity and Weimar Germany. Upper Silesia and the Eastern Border, 1918–1922'', University of Nebraska Press, 1997, p. 15</ref> Another Polish newspaper, the ''Nowiny'' was founded by Franciszek Kurpierz in 1911.

From 1816–1945 Opole was the capital of [[Regierungsbezirk]] Oppeln within Prussia. The city became part of the [[German Empire]] during the [[unification of Germany]] in 1871.

===After World War I===
[[File:1921 UpperSilesia 15 25Pfg Oppeln Opole Poland.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|Stamps after the plebiscite in August 1921 featured the German name of ''Oppeln'']]
After the defeat of Imperial Germany in [[World War I]], a [[Silesian Plebiscite|plebiscite]] was held on 20 March 1921 in Oppeln to determine if the city would be in the [[Weimar Republic]] or become part of the [[Second Polish Republic]], which just regained independence. 20,816 (94.7%) votes were cast for Germany, 1,098 (5.0%) for Poland, and 70 (0.3%) votes were declared invalid. Voter participation was 95.9%. Results of the plebiscite in the Oppeln-Land county were different, with 30% of the population voting for Poland. The local newspaper ''Oppelner Nachrichten'' was published in Oppeln.

Oppeln was the administrative seat of the [[Province of Upper Silesia]] from 1919–1939. In the years 1928–1931, by the decision of the German regional administration, the Piast Castle was demolished. Thanks to the strong opposition of the local Polish community and protests of the [[Union of Poles in Germany]], the castle tower was saved from demolition.<ref>''Spotkania z Zabytkami''. 6, 2005, p. 21. (in Polish)</ref> Nowadays called the ''Piast Tower'' it is one of the city's landmarks. In 1929, a Polish theatre from [[Katowice]] came to Opole to perform the opera ''[[Halka]]'' by [[Stanisław Moniuszko]]. After the performance, the actors were brutally beaten by a German militia with the silent consent of the German police.<ref>Dorota Simonides, Jan Zaremba, ''Śląskie miscellanea: literatura-folklor'', 2006, p. 82 (in Polish)</ref>

[[File:Piastenschloss und Schlossteich in Oppeln.jpg|thumb|The [[:pl:Zamek Piastowski w Opolu|Piast Castle]], prior to its demolition by the German authorities]]
Local Polish activists were intensively persecuted from 1937 onwards.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Cygański|first=Mirosław|year=1984|title=Hitlerowskie prześladowania przywódców i aktywu Związków Polaków w Niemczech w latach 1939-1945|journal=Przegląd Zachodni|language=pl|issue=4|page=24}}</ref> The local ''[[Gestapo]]'' terrorized and spied on Polish activities in the German-held part of Upper Silesia, participated in espionage and sabotage in the Polish part of Silesia and prepared border provocations against Poland.<ref name=mc29>Cygański, p. 29</ref> There was strong [[Anti-Polish sentiment|anti-Polish]] [[Propaganda in Nazi Germany|propaganda]] in the city and region.<ref name=mc29/>

The local Polish newspaper ''Nowiny Codzienne'' was frequently confiscated from 1937 and its editors were harassed, its work obstructed, its distributors persecuted, and its readers threatened.<ref>Cygański, p. 30–31</ref> In 1938–1939, the local ''Gestapo'' carried out [[Expulsion of Poles by Germany|expulsions]] of Polish activists from the region, which the local Polish press could still report.<ref>Cygański, p. 25</ref> On 2 July 1939 a Nazi militia attacked and severely beat Poles going to a Polish service in the Saint Sebastian Church.<ref name=mc30/>

=== World War II ===
[[File:WK15 Opole Główne (45) Lichen99.jpg|thumb|left|Plaque at the main railway station commemorating deportations of Poles from Opole to concentration camps in 1939]]
On August 31, the day before the German [[invasion of Poland]] that began [[World War II]], the Germans began mass arrests of prominent Poles in the city, which were continued in September.<ref>Cygański, p. 32</ref> Among the arrested Poles were activists, entrepreneurs, journalists, editors, scout leaders, the director of the local Polish bank and the director of the local Polish library.<ref>Cygański, p. 32–34</ref> The ''Nowiny Codzienne'' newspaper was closed down on September 1, and its editorial team, including editor-in-chief Jan Łangowski, was deported to [[Nazi concentration camps|concentration camps]].<ref>Cygański, p. 33</ref> In September 1939, local Polish organizations were closed down by the German police and ''Gestapo'', and the assets of the local Polish bank were confiscated.<ref>Cygański, p. 32–33</ref> On 13 September and 4 October 1939, arrested Poles were deported from the city to concentration camps, men to [[Buchenwald concentration camp|Buchenwald]] and women to [[Ravensbrück concentration camp|Ravensbrück]].<ref>Cygański, p. 32, 35</ref> Some local Poles avoided arrest by escaping earlier to Poland.<ref name=mc30>Cygański, p. 30</ref>

The German [[10th Army (Wehrmacht)|10th Army]] and [[14th Army (Wehrmacht)|14th Army]] attacked Poland from the city, and the ''[[Einsatzgruppen|Einsatzgruppe]]'' I and II followed the armies from Opole to various Polish cities to commit [[Nazi crimes against the Polish nation|crimes against the Polish people]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Wardzyńska|first=Maria|year=2009|title=Był rok 1939. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion|language=pl|location=Warszawa|publisher=[[Institute of National Remembrance|IPN]]|page=58}}</ref> After the defeat of Poland, Polish Eastern Upper Silesia was re-annexed to the Province of Upper Silesia and Oppeln lost its status as provincial capital to German-occupied [[Katowice]] (renamed ''Kattowitz'').

Polish prisoners from the city co-founded the secret resistance movement in Buchenwald, while Polish escapees from the city participated in the [[Polish resistance movement in World War II|Polish resistance]] in [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|occupied Poland]].<ref>Cygański, p. 60–62</ref> Local members of the Polish resistance were expelled from the city.<ref>Cygański, p. 59</ref>

During the war, the Nazis operated thirteen [[Forced labour under German rule during World War II|forced labour]] subcamps of the [[Stalag VIII-B|Stalag VIII-B/344]] [[German prisoner-of-war camps in World War II|prisoner-of-war camp]] for [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] POWs in the city, and two in the present-day district of Groszowice.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lamsdorf.com/working-parties.html|title=Working Parties|website=Lamsdorf.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029103834/https://www.lamsdorf.com/working-parties.html|access-date=12 November 2021|archive-date=29 October 2020}}</ref>

The New Synagogue was built in 1893–1897, designed by Felix Henry. During the [[Kristallnacht]] on 9–10 November 1938 Nazis forced Rabbi Hans Hirschberg to set the building on fire.

[[File:Oppeln-Rathaus-Aussen-vNorden-IMG 6080-5x5B-360x180G-PanoS-06-08-2024 (cropped)3.jpg|thumb|right|Architecture of the Main Marketplace]][[File:Opole - katedra i Most Piastowski.jpg|thumb|right|[[Piast dynasty|Piast]] Bridge and Opole Cathedral in the background with its two iconic [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] towers]]

===In modern Poland===
After the end of the Second World War in 1945, Oppeln was transferred from Germany to Poland, pursuant to the agreements of the [[Potsdam Conference]], and given its original Slavic name of Opole. Opole became part of the [[Katowice Voivodeship]] from 1946–1950, after which it became part of the [[Opole Voivodeship]]. Unlike other parts of the so-called [[Recovered Territories]], Opole and the surrounding region's indigenous population partly remained and was only partly [[expulsion of Germans after World War II|expelled as elsewhere]]. Over 1 million Silesians who considered themselves Poles or were treated as such by the authorities due to their language and customs were allowed to stay after they were verified as Poles in a special verification process. It involved declaring [[Polish people|Polish nationality]] and an oath of allegiance to the Polish nation. Additionally, many Poles displaced from the former Polish [[Kresy]] annexed by the USSR (for example [[Lviv|Lwów]]) came to Opole and the surrounding area and settled here after the Second World War.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://dzieje.pl/aktualnosci/opolscy-kresowianie-wciaz-zyja-wspomnieniami-o-rodzinnych-stronach | title=Opolscy Kresowianie wciąż żyją wspomnieniami o rodzinnych stronach }}</ref>

In the later years however many Germans (and German Silesians) left to [[West Germany]] to flee the communist [[Eastern Bloc]] (see [[Emigration from Poland to Germany after World War II]]). Today Opole, along with the surrounding region, is known as a centre of the [[German minority in Poland]] that recruits mainly from the descendants of the positively verified autochthons. In the city itself however only 2.46% of the inhabitants declared German nationality according to the last national census of 2002.

On 1 January 2017 [[Borki, Opole Voivodeship|Borki]], [[Chmielowice, Opole Voivodeship|Chmielowice]], [[Czarnowąsy]], [[Krzanowice, Opole Voivodeship|Krzanowice]], [[Sławice]], [[Świerkle]], [[Winów]], [[Wrzoski, Opole Voivodeship|Wrzoski]], [[Żerkowice, Opole Voivodeship|Żerkowice]] as well as parts of [[Brzezie, Opole Voivodeship|Brzezie]], [[Dobrzeń Mały]] and [[Karczów, Opole Voivodeship|Karczów]] became a part of Opole, enlargening its population by about 9,500, and its area by over 5,300 ha, despite the protests of inhabitants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/DetailsServlet?id=WDU20160001134|title=Rozporządzenie Rady Ministrów z dnia 19 lipca 2016 r. w sprawie ustalenia granic niektórych gmin i miast, nadania niektórym miejscowościom statusu miasta oraz zmiany nazwy gminy|website=isap.sejm.gov.pl|access-date=26 October 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.tvn24.pl/wroclaw,44/opole-sie-powieksza-czesc-mieszkancow-niezadowolona,662315.html|title=Opole się powiększa kosztem okolicznych wsi. Ich mieszkańcy protestują."To skok na kasę"|work=TVN24.pl|access-date=2017-10-04}}</ref>