Editing Omar Torrijos (section)

== Career ==
{{sources|section|date=February 2025}}
[[Image:Omar Torrijos with Panamanian farmers.jpg|left|thumb|Omar Torrijos (right) with farmers in the Panamanian countryside. The Torrijos government was well known for its policies of land redistribution.]]
[[Image:Jimmy Carter and General Omar Torrijos signing the Panama Canal Treaty.jpg|thumb|right|President Carter shakes hands with General Torrijos of Panama after signing the Panama Canal Treaty.]]

He had reached the rank of lieutenant colonel by 1966. Due to accusations of his involvement in election frauds, Torrijos was ordered to El Salvador in 1968 as a military attaché.<ref name="Embassy">{{cite book |title=Behind Embassy Walls. |last=Grove |first=Brandon |year=2005 |publisher=University of Missouri Press |location=Missouri |isbn=0-8262-1573-4 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/behindembassywal00grov }}</ref> It was during this year that his close friend in the Guardia, Major [[Boris Martínez]] and Colonel Jose Humberto Ramos (godfather of his son Omar) initiated a [[1968 Panamanian coup d'état|meditated and successful coup d'état]] against the recently elected president of Panama, [[Arnulfo Arias]], after almost eleven days in office.

Having received news of the coup while in the Canal Zone, Torrijos and a few officers including [[Demetrio Lakas Bahas|Demetrio Lakas]] sought to re-establish some form of civilian rule, including an attempt to install Arnulfo's vice-president, [[Raúl Arango]], as the new president, much to Martínez's dismay.<ref name="Tyrants" /> Although a two-man junta was appointed, Martinez and Torrijos were the true leaders from the beginning. Torrijos was promoted to full colonel and named commandant of the National Guard. They barred all political activity and shut down the legislature. They also seized control of three newspapers owned by Arias' brother, [[Harmodio Arias|Harmodio]] and blackmailed the owners of the country's oldest newspaper, ''[[La Estrella de Panamá]]'', into becoming a [[government mouthpiece]]. With enough opposition against Martinez including from the United States, Torrijos ousted and exiled Martinez and Ramos to Miami on February 23, 1969, nearly four months after the initial coup. He then promoted himself to [[brigadier general]].<ref name="Tyrants" />

For him, the overthrown government "was a marriage between the armed forces, the oligarchy and the bad priests; the soldier carried his rifle to silence the people and forbid "the scoundrel" to disrespect the ruling class. "Explaining that his revolution acts "for the poor, not for the owners", he had a new Constitution, an agrarian reform, and a Labour Code adopted and recognized the workers' and peasants' unions.

Torrijos promoted land reform, education, and social welfare programs in an effort to reduce inequality and strengthen Panama’s sovereignty. His government's most popular measure was the redistribution of agricultural land. The reforms were accompanied by a major public works programme. He also opposed North American [[multinational corporation|multinationals]], redistributing 180,000 hectares of uncultivated land. In February 1974, following [[OPEC]]'s model for oil, he attempted to form the Union of Banana Exporting Countries with other Central American States to respond to the influence of these multinationals, but did not obtain their support. Its policy promoted the emergence of a middle class and the representation of [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] communities. 

In 1972, his government held an election of an Assembly of Community Representatives. The new assembly approved a new Constitution and elected Demetrio Lakas as president. Torrijos was the actual head of government, with near-absolute powers for six years.

Torrijos was regarded by his supporters as the first Panamanian leader to represent the majority population of Panama, which is poor, Spanish-speaking, and of mixed heritage – as opposed to the stereotypically white-skinned social [[elite]], often referred to as {{lang|es|rabiblancos}} ("white-tails", or more recently, {{lang|es|yeyé(s)}}), who had long (and still do, to a lesser extent) dominated the commerce and political life of Panama. He opened many schools and created new job opportunities for those less fortunate. Some say he even spent his weekends giving a thousand dollars to random people and charities.<ref name="Embassy"/> Torrijos instituted a range of social and economic reforms to improve the land lots of the poor, and redistributed agricultural land. He prosecuted the richest and most powerful families in the country, and in turn favored his political allies, which enabled them to amass their own fortunes at the expense of the Panamanian treasury.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gandásegui |first1=Marco A. |title=Los dueños de Panamá |url=https://www.laestrella.com.pa/opinion/columnistas/151203/duenos-panama |website=www.laestrella.com.pa |access-date=23 February 2024 |language=es-PA}}</ref> His reforms were accompanied by an ambitious [[public works]] program, financed by foreign banks.

In international politics, Torrijos supported Chilean President [[Salvador Allende]] and welcomed refugees after the [[1973 Chilean coup d'état|1973 coup d'état]]. He helped the Sandinista guerrillas in [[Nicaragua]] and other rebel forces in [[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], and renewed diplomatic relations with [[Cuba]].

In 1978, he stepped down as head of the government but remained ''de facto'' ruler of the country while another one of his followers, [[Aristides Royo]], was a figurehead president. He also restored some civil liberties; [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[Jimmy Carter]] had told him that the Senate would never approve the Canal treaties unless Torrijos made some effort to liberalize his rule.<ref name="Buckman"/>

=== Panama Canal ===
An admirer of Yugoslav leader [[Josip Broz Tito]] and inspired by [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]]'s nationalization of the [[Suez Canal]], he embarked on a fight against the United States to gain Panama's sovereignty. In 1973, in the absence of progress in negotiations with the United States, he tried to involve the UN: "We have never been, are not and will never be an associated state, colony or protectorate, and we do not intend to add a star to the United States flag". The US vetoed the adopted resolution.

Torrijos negotiated the [[Torrijos–Carter Treaties]] over the [[Panama Canal]], signed on September 7, 1977. These treaties passed United States sovereignty over the canal zone to Panama, with a gradual increase in Panamanian control over it, leading to complete control on December 31, 1999. The United States, however, retained the permanent right to protect what it called the 'neutrality' of the canal, allowing U.S. administration of the canal as well as military intervention through the now-legalized U.S. bases in Panama. These aspects of the treaty fell short of nationalistic goals and the ratification ceremony at [[Fort Clayton]] was somewhat of an embarrassment for Torrijos. He was noticeably drunk during the ceremony; his speech was badly slurred and he had to brace himself against the podium to keep from falling.<ref name="Buckman">{{cite book |title=The World Today Series: Latin America 2007 |last=Buckman |first=Robert T. |year=2007 |publisher=Stryker-Post Publications |location=Harpers Ferry, West Virginia |isbn=978-1-887985-84-0}}</ref><ref name="Regime"/>

=== Political transition ===
With pressure from the Carter administration as well as from economic depression, Torrijos sought to appease public distress and defuse opposition from labor unions as well as influential oligarchs. He reintroduced the traditional parties by modifying the 1972 constitution and set elections for 1984. During this time, in 1979, Torrijos organized the [[Democratic Revolutionary Party]] (PRD) which loosely linked to [[Socialist International]] ideals and represented a melange of social classes, namely the internationally affiliated bourgeoisie. Due to the incoherent nature of this organization, Torrijos was the pivotal figure in maintaining a stable vision between the left and right tendencies within it. His death in 1981, before the transition could be completed, caused a political crisis in the country which led to [[Manuel Noriega]] coming to power as military ruler.<ref name="Tyrants">{{cite book |title=In the Time of the Tyrants: Panama, 1968-1990. |last=Koster |first=R.M. |author2=Guillermo Sánchez |year=1990 |publisher=Norton |location=New York City |isbn=978-0-393-02696-2 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/intimeoftyrantsp00kost }}</ref><ref name="Regime">{{cite book |title= Military Government and Popular Participation in Panama |last=Priestley |first=George |year=1986 |publisher=Westview Press, Inc. |location=Boulder, Colorado |isbn=0-8133-7045-0}}</ref>