Editing Oman (section)

== History ==
{{main|History of Oman}}

=== Prehistory and ancient history ===
[[File:World Heritage Grave Al Ayn Oman.JPG|thumb|250px|The [[Archaeological Sites of Bat, Al-Khutm and Al-Ayn]] in [[Ad Dhahirah Governorate|Ad Dhahirah]], built in the 3rd Millennium [[BCE]], are [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]]]
[[File:Lia sites.JPG|thumb|upright=1|[[Late Iron Age]] sites in Oman]]
At Aybut Al Auwal, in the [[Dhofar Governorate]] of Oman, a site was discovered in 2011 containing more than 100 surface scatters of stone tools, belonging to a regionally specific African [[lithic industry]]—the late [[Nubia]]n Complex—known previously only from the northeast and [[Horn of Africa]]. Two optically stimulated luminescence age estimates place the Arabian Nubian Complex at 106,000 years old. This supports the proposition that early human populations moved from Africa into Arabia during the [[Late Pleistocene]].<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0028239| pmid = 22140561| title = The Nubian Complex of Dhofar, Oman: An African Middle Stone Age Industry in Southern Arabia| journal = PLOS ONE| volume = 6| issue = 11| pages = e28239| year = 2011| last1 = Rose | first1 = J. I. | last2 = Usik | first2 = V. I. | last3 = Marks | first3 = A. E. | last4 = Hilbert | first4 = Y. H. | last5 = Galletti | first5 = C. S. | last6 = Parton | first6 = A. | last7 = Geiling | first7 = J. M. | last8 = Černý | first8 = V. | last9 = Morley | first9 = M. W. | last10 = Roberts | first10 = R. G. | pmc=3227647| bibcode = 2011PLoSO...628239R| doi-access = free}}</ref>

In recent years{{when|date=April 2025}} surveys have uncovered Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites on the eastern coast. Main Palaeolithic sites include Saiwan-Ghunaim in the Barr al-Hikman.<ref>Jeffrey I. Rose et al., South Punjab, Oman: An African Middle Stone Age Industry in Southern Arabia, Plos 30 November 2011 {{doi|10.1371/journal.pone.0028239}}</ref> Archaeological remains are particularly numerous for the Bronze Age [[Umm an-Nar]] and [[Wadi Suq culture|Wadi Suq]] periods. At the archaeological sites of Bat, Al-Janah, and Al-Ayn wheel-turned pottery, hand-made stone vessels, metals industry artifacts, and monumental architecture have been preserved.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Bronze Age Towers at Bat, Sultanate of Oman…2007–12|author1=Thornton, Christopher |author2=Cable, Charlotte |author3=Possehl, Gregory |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Museum |year=2016 |isbn=9781934536063}}</ref>

There is considerable agreement in sources that [[frankincense]] was used by traders in 1500 BCE. The [[Land of Frankincense]], a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]], dramatically illustrates that the incense constituted testimony to [[South Arabia]]n civilisations.

During the 8th century BCE, it is believed that the Yaarub, the descendant of [[Qahtanite|Qahtan]], ruled the entire region of Yemen, including Oman. Wathil bin Himyar bin [[Sheba|Abd-Shams (Saba)]] bin Yashjub ([[Yemen|Yaman]]) bin Yarub bin [[Joktan|Qahtan]] later ruled Oman.<ref name=YWTATss/> It is thus believed that the Yaarubah were the first settlers in Oman from Yemen.<ref name=MIIDN/>

In the 1970s and 1980s, scholars like [[John C. Wilkinson]]<ref>{{cite book |title= Water and Tribal Settlement in South East Arabia – A Study of the Aflaj of Oman |author=Wilkinson, John |publisher=Clarendon Press |year= 1977 |pages=76, 85, 122, 126–130, 132 |isbn=0198232179}}</ref> believed by virtue of oral history that in the 6th century BCE, the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenids]] exerted control over the Omani peninsula, most likely ruling from a coastal centre such as [[Suhar]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Cross-roads Early and Late Iron Age South-Eastern Arabia |author=Yule, Paul |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |year= 2014 |pages=15–18 |isbn=9783447101271}}</ref> Central Oman has its own indigenous Samad Late Iron Age cultural assemblage named eponymously from [[Samad al-Shan]]. In the northern part of the Oman Peninsula the [[Pre-Islamic Arabia|Recent Pre-Islamic Period]] begins in the 3rd century BCE and extends into the 3rd century CE. Whether or not Persians brought south-eastern Arabia under their control is a moot point, since the lack of Persian archeological finds speak against this belief. [[Armand-Pierre Caussin de Perceval]] suggests that Shammir bin Wathil bin Himyar recognized the authority of [[Cyrus the Great]] over Oman in 536 BCE.<ref name=YWTATss>[https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000028 British National Archive: Salîl-ibn-Razîk "History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707182006/http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000028 |date=7 July 2022 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân. British National Archive page 39 QDL</ref>

[[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] tablets referred to Oman as "[[Magan (civilization)|Magan]]"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archive.archaeology.org/9705/abstracts/magan.html |title=Digging in the Land of Magan – Archaeology Magazine Archive |publisher=Archive.archaeology.org |access-date=14 January 2014 |archive-date=23 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023072850/http://archive.archaeology.org/9705/abstracts/magan.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198303/oman-the.lost.land.htm |title=Oman: The Lost Land |magazine=Saudi Aramco World |date=March 1983 |access-date=14 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006085542/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198303/oman-the.lost.land.htm |archive-date=6 October 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and in the [[Akkadian language]] "Makan",<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198303/oman-a.history.htm |title=Oman: A History |magazine=Saudi Aramco World |date=March 1983 |access-date=14 January 2014 |archive-date=28 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228222525/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198303/oman-a.history.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> a name that links Oman's ancient copper resources.<ref>Gerd Weisgerber "Mehr als Kupfer in Oman" ''Anschnitt'' 5-6, 1981, 180–181 [[Archaeology of Oman]]</ref>

===Azd tribal migration===
Over centuries, tribes from western Arabia settled in Oman; they made a living by fishing, farming, herding or stock breeding. Further, many present-day Omani families trace their ancestral roots to other parts of Arabia. Arab migration to Oman started from northern-western and south-western Arabia and those who chose to settle had to compete with the indigenous population for the best arable land. When Arab tribes started to migrate to Oman, there were two distinct groups. One group, a segment of the [[Azd]] tribe migrated from [[Yemen]] in 120<ref name=YWTAT/>/200 CE following the collapse of [[Marib Dam]], while the other group migrated a few centuries before the birth of Islam from [[Nejd]] (present-day [[Saudi Arabia]]), named [[Nizar ibn Ma'ad|Nizari]]. Other historians believe that the Yaarubah from Qahtan, which belong to an older branch, were the first settlers of Oman from Yemen, and then came the Azd.<ref name=MIIDN/> 
[[File:Ruins6.JPG|thumb|200px|right|upright|Ruins of [[Khor Rori]], built between 100 [[Before Common Era|BCE]] and 100 [[Common Era|CE]]]]
The Azd settlers in Oman are descendants of Nasr bin Azd and were later known as "the Al-Azd of Oman".<ref name=YWTAT/> Seventy years after the first Azd migration, another branch of [[Azd|Alazdi]] under Malik bin Fahm, the founder of Kingdom of [[Tanukhids|Tanukhites]] on the west of [[Euphrates]], is believed to have settled in Oman.<ref name=YWTAT>Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000029 British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân (40/612)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707163649/http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000029 |date=7 July 2022 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân. British National Archive. QDL.</ref> According to Al-Kalbi, Malik bin Fahm was the first settler of Alazd.<ref name=MFFSOO>Annals of 'Omān. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023925085.0x000015 British National Archive: Annals of 'Omān' &#91;3&#93; (20/112).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308135606/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023925085.0x000015 |date=8 March 2021 }} British National Archive. Page 20. QDL.</ref> He is said to have first settled in [[Qalhat]]. By this account, Malik, with an armed force of more than 6000 men and horses, fought against the [[Marzban]], who served an ambiguously named Persian king in the battle of Salut in Oman and eventually defeated the Persian forces.<ref name=MIIDN/><ref name=HOM>{{Cite journal|title=The Azd migrations reconsidered: narratives of ʿAmr Muzayqiya and Mālik b. Fahm in historiographic context by Brian Ulrich (21 July 2007)|journal = Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies|volume = 38|pages = 311–318|publisher=JSTOR|jstor = 41223958|last1 = Ulrich|first1 = Brian|year = 2008}}</ref>{{sfn|Maisel|Shoup|2009|p=193}}<ref name=TIM>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Uz3WCgAAQBAJ|title=Oman Since 1856 (1967)|author=Robert Geran Landen|publisher=Princeton Legacy Library|isbn=9781400878277|date=8 December 2015|access-date=8 May 2020|archive-date=11 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211035637/https://books.google.com/books?id=Uz3WCgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> This account is, however, semi-legendary and seems to condense multiple centuries of migration and conflict as well as an amalgamation of various traditions from not only the Arab tribes but also the region's original inhabitants.<ref name="HOM" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hopwood|first=Derek|title=The Arabian Peninsula: Society and Politics|publisher=Routledge|year=2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hawley|first=Donald|title=Oman and Its Renaissance|publisher=Humanities Press|year=1984|pages=18}}</ref>

During the 7th century CE, Omanis came in contact with and accepted [[Islam]].<ref name="History of OMAN">{{cite web|url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ad54|title=History of OMAN|publisher=Historyworld.net|access-date=17 April 2010|archive-date=2 August 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090802205607/http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ad54|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="us-state-dept">{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35834.htm |title=Oman |date=31 March 2010 |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |access-date=9 July 2010 |quote=Oman adopted [[Islam]] in the seventh century A.D., during the lifetime of Muhammad. |archive-date=17 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817081901/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35834.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The conversion of Omanis to Islam is ascribed to [[Amr ibn al-As]], who was sent by the prophet [[Muhammad]] during the [[Expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha (Hisma)]]. Amr was dispatched to meet with Jaifer and Abd, the sons of Julanda who ruled Oman. They appear to have readily embraced Islam.<ref name=INOE>Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x00002d British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân (44/612).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707193741/http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x00002d |date=7 July 2022 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 44. QDL.</ref>

===Imamate of Oman===
Omani [[Azd]] used to travel to [[Basra]] for trade, which was a centre of Islam, during the [[Umayyad]] empire. Omani Azd were granted a section of Basra, where they could settle and attend to their needs. Many of the Omani Azd who settled in Basra became wealthy merchants and, under their leader [[al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra]], started to expand their influence of power eastwards towards [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]. [[Ibadism]] originated in Basra through its founder, [[Abdallah ibn Ibad|Abd Allah ibn Ibad]],<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal |date=December 1980 |title=10th Congress, Union Européenne des Arabisants et Islamisants |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0026318400009196 |journal=Middle East Studies Association Bulletin |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=101–103 |doi=10.1017/s0026318400009196 |issn=0026-3184}}</ref> around the year 650; the Omani Azd in Iraq would subsequently adopt this as their predominant faith. Later, [[Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf|al-Hajjaj]], the governor of Iraq, came into conflict with the Ibadis, which forced them back to Oman. Among those who returned was the scholar [[Jābir ibn Zayd|Jaber bin Zaid]]. His return (and the return of many other scholars) greatly enhanced the Ibadhi movement in Oman.<ref name=OmanForeignPolicy/> Alhajjaj also made an attempt to subjugate Oman, then ruled by Suleiman and Said (the sons of Abbad bin Julanda). Alhajjaj dispatched Mujjaah bin Shiwah, who was confronted by Said bin Abbad. This confrontation devastated Said's army, after which he and his forces retreated to the [[Jebel Akhdar (Oman)|Jebel Akhdar]] (mountains). Mujjaah and his forces went after Said, successfully flushing them out from hiding in Wadi Mastall. Mujjaah later moved towards the coast, where he confronted Suleiman bin Abbad. The battle was won by Suleiman's forces. Alhajjaj, however, sent another force (under Abdulrahman bin Suleiman); he eventually won the war, taking over the governance of Oman.<ref name=HRIS>Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x0000a5 British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân (164/612).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707173534/http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x0000a5 |date=7 July 2022 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 164. QDL.</ref><ref name=HRIS1>Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x0000a6 British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân (165/612).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308223226/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x0000a6 |date=8 March 2021 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 165. QDL.</ref><ref name=HRIS2>Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x0000a7 British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân (166/612).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707160958/http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x0000a7 |date=7 July 2022 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 166. QDL.</ref>
[[File:Bahla Fort-109699.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Bahla Fort]], a UNESCO World Heritage site, was built between 12th and 15th c. by the [[Nabhani dynasty]].]]
The first elective [[Imamate of Oman]] is believed to have been established shortly after the fall of the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad Dynasty]] in 750/755 CE, when Janaħ bin ʕibadah Alħinnawi was elected.<ref name=OmanForeignPolicy/><ref name=FEIH>Hans kruse. [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/002088176500700404 Notes and Memoranda of Oman ''Hans kruse''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710031532/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/002088176500700404 |date=10 July 2022 }} Disturbances in Oman: Notes and Memoranda of Oman. Sage Journals. 1 October 1965.</ref> Other scholars claim that Janaħ bin Ibadah served as a [[Wāli]] (governor) under the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] dynasty (and later ratified the Imamate), and that Julanda bin Masud was the first elected Imam of Oman, in 751 CE.<ref name=TFIMOOS>Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x00002f British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân (46/612).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220709004046/http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x00002f |date=9 July 2022 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 46. QDL.</ref><ref name=FROI>Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x0000a9 British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856 (168/612)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707171313/http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x0000a9 |date=7 July 2022 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 168. QDL.</ref> The first Imamate reached its peak power in the ninth century CE.<ref name=OmanForeignPolicy/> The Imamate established a maritime empire whose fleet controlled the Gulf, during the time when trade with the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid Dynasty]], the Far East, and Africa flourished.<ref name=OQ>J. C. Wilkinson. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1797273?read-now=1&refreqid=excelsior%3A6b134b0a9b7cd25d12a24320dde2af3e&seq=8#page_scan_tab_contents The Oman Question: The Background to the Political Geography of South-East Arabia.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616160345/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1797273?read-now=1&refreqid=excelsior%3A6b134b0a9b7cd25d12a24320dde2af3e&seq=8#page_scan_tab_contents |date=16 June 2022 }} The Oman Question: The Background to the Political Geography of South-East Arabia. Pages 361–371. The Geographical Journal. JSTOR. 1971.</ref> The authority of the Imams started to decline due to power struggles, the constant interventions of Abbasid, and the rise of the [[Seljuk Empire]].<ref name=OBG/><ref name=TFIMOOS/>

===Nabhani dynasty===
{{further|Nabhani dynasty}}
During the 11th and 12th centuries, the Omani coast was in the sphere of influence of the [[Seljuk Empire]]. They were expelled in 1154, when the Nabhani dynasty came to power.<ref name=OBG>Uzi Rabi. [https://books.google.com/books?id=3rgOk3d8hhoC&pg=PA6 Emergence of States in a Tribal Society: Oman Under Sa'Id Bin Taymur.] Emergence of States in a Tribal Society: Oman Under Sa'Id Bin Taymur.</ref> The Nabhanis ruled as ''muluk'', or kings, while the Imams were reduced to largely symbolic significance. The capital of the dynasty was [[Bahla]].<ref name=RAN>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UtSAeuMq-VgC&pg=PA24|title=Emergence of States in a Tribal Society: Oman Under Sa'Id Bin Taymur, 1932–1970|first=Uzi|last=Rabi|date=11 March 2011|publisher=Apollo Books|isbn=9781845194734|via=Google Books}}</ref> The Banu Nabhan controlled the trade in frankincense on the overland route via [[Sohar]] to the [[Yabrin]] oasis, and then north to Bahrain, Baghdad and Damascus.<ref name=NABH>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eNXdeDu6h9gC&pg=PA78|title=Arab/American: Landscape, Culture, and Cuisine in Two Great Deserts|first=Gary Paul|last=Nabhan|date=11 March 2008|publisher=University of Arizona Press|isbn=9780816526581|via=Google Books}}</ref> The mango-tree was introduced to Oman during the time of Nabhani dynasty, by ElFellah bin Muhsin.<ref name=MIIDN>Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000037 British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân ''(54/612)''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708223932/http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000037 |date=8 July 2022 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân. British National Archive. Page 54. QDL.</ref><ref name=MIIDN1>Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697836.0x000003 British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân ''(202/612)''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308174935/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697836.0x000003 |date=8 March 2021 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân. British National Archive. Page 202. QDL.</ref> The Nabhani dynasty started to deteriorate in 1507 when Portuguese colonisers captured the coastal city of [[Muscat, Oman|Muscat]], and gradually extended their control along the coast up to [[Sohar]] in the north and down to [[Sur, Oman|Sur]] in the southeast.<ref name=THIMAS>Gavin Thomas. [https://books.google.com/books?id=qKAtjJoXXpwC&pg=PA222 The Rough Guide to Oman .] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211035637/https://books.google.com/books?id=qKAtjJoXXpwC&pg=PA222 |date=11 February 2023 }} The Rough Guide to Oman.</ref> Other historians argue that the Nabhani dynasty ended earlier in 1435 CE when conflicts between the dynasty and Alhinawis arose, which led to the restoration of the elective Imamate.<ref name=MIIDN/>

=== Portuguese era ===
{{Main|Battle of the Gulf of Oman}}
[[File:Seydi Ali-Ambush.png|thumb|right|The [[Portuguese Empire]] ruled [[Muscat|Oman]] for 143 years (1507–1650)]]

A decade after [[Vasco da Gama]] succeeded in his voyage around the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and to India in 1497–1498, the Portuguese arrived in Oman and [[Capture of Muscat (1507)|occupied Muscat]] for a 143-year period, from 1507 to 1650.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Muscat {{!}} Silk Roads Programme |url=https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/content/muscat |access-date=2025-04-02 |website=en.unesco.org}}</ref> In need of an outpost to protect their sea lanes, the Portuguese built up and fortified the city. Remnants of Portuguese architectural style still exist. Later, several more Omani cities were colonized in the early 16th century by the Portuguese, to control the entrances of the [[Persian Gulf]] and trade in the region as part of a web of fortresses in the region, from [[Basra]] to [[Hormuz Island]].<ref name=":2" />

However, in 1552 an [[Ottoman Navy|Ottoman fleet]] briefly [[Capture of Muscat (1552)|captured the fort in Muscat]], during their fight for control of the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean, but soon departed after destroying the surroundings of the fortress.<ref>Holt, Peter Malcolm; Lambton, Ann K. S. and Lewis, Bernard (1977) ''The Cambridge history of Islam'' Cambridge University Press {{ISBN|0521291364}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Muscat |url=https://phersu-atlas.com/chronology/polity2771.html |access-date=2025-04-02 |website=phersu-atlas.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Walker |first=Adam Feng, Benny He, Jiwon Kim, Lola Shore, Mark Istvan Ledeczi-Domonkos, Sarah |date=2021-12-22 |title=A Timeline of Asian Empires in the Early Modern Period |url=https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/9aa165d9f669454bb842934bdfc2fc60 |access-date=2025-04-02 |website=ArcGIS StoryMaps |language=en}}</ref>

Later in the 17th century, using its bases in Oman, Portugal engaged in the [[Battle off Hormuz (1625)|largest naval battle ever fought in the Persian Gulf]]. The [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] force fought against a combined armada of the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC) and [[English East India Company]] supported by the Safavid empire. The result of the battle was a draw but it resulted in the loss of Portuguese influence in the Gulf.<ref name=WF>Willem Floor, "Dutch Relations with the Persian Gulf", in Lawrence G. Potter (ed.), ''The Persian Gulf in History'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009) p. 240</ref>

===Yaruba dynasty (1624–1744)===
{{further|Omani Empire}}
[[File:Areas under Omani influence 18th-19th century.svg|thumb|Following the expulsion of the [[Portuguese Empire]], Oman became one of the powers in the western Indian Ocean from 1698 onwards.<ref name=OQCP>Oman Country Profile. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/country-profile-oman Oman Country Profile.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190720161203/https://www.qdl.qa/en/country-profile-oman |date=20 July 2019 }} British Library Partnership. Qatar Digital Library. 2014.</ref>]]
The [[Ottoman Empire]] temporarily captured Muscat from the Portuguese again in 1581 and held it until 1588. During the 17th century, the Omanis were reunited by the [[Yaruba dynasty|Yaruba Imams]]. Nasir bin Murshid became the first Yaarubah Imam in 1624, when he was elected in Rustaq.<ref name=ETENT>{{Cite web|url=https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000039|title='History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856; translated from the original Arabic, and edited with notes, appendices, and an introduction, continuing the history down to 1870, by George Percy Badger, F.R.G.S., late chaplain in the Presidency of Bombay.' [23] (56/612)|date=22 October 2014|website=Qatar Digital Library|access-date=6 September 2019|archive-date=7 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707154525/http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000039|url-status=live}}</ref> Imam Nasir and his successor succeeded in the 1650s in expelling the Portuguese from their coastal domains in Oman.<ref name=OmanForeignPolicy>Majid Alkhalili. [https://books.google.com/books?id=UAKrCQAAQBAJ&dq=ghaleb+al+hinai&pg=PA23 Majid Alkhalili: ''Oman's Foreign Policy''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413204038/https://books.google.com/books?id=UAKrCQAAQBAJ&dq=ghaleb+al+hinai&pg=PA23 |date=13 April 2023 }} Oman's Foreign Policy: Foundation and Practice. 19 May 2009. Praeger.</ref> The Omanis over time established a maritime empire that pursued the Portuguese and expelled them from all their possessions in East Africa, which were then incorporated into the Omani domains. To capture Zanzibar [[Saif bin Sultan]], the [[Imam]] of Oman, pressed down the [[Swahili Coast]]. A major obstacle to his progress was [[Fort Jesus]], housing the garrison of a Portuguese settlement at [[Mombasa]]. After a two-year siege, the fort fell to Imam Saif bin Sultan in 1698. Saif bin Sultan occupied Bahrain in 1700.  The rivalry within the house of Yaruba over power after the death of Imam Sultan in 1718 weakened the dynasty. With the power of the Yaruba Dynasty dwindling, Imam Saif bin Sultan II eventually asked for help against his rivals from [[Nader Shah]] of Persia. A Persian force arrived in March 1737 to aid Saif. From their base at Julfar, the Persian forces eventually rebelled against the Yaruba in 1743. The Persian empire then tried to take possession of the coast of Oman until 1747.<ref name=OmanForeignPolicy/><ref name=ASOD>Stefan Siebert. [https://books.google.com/books?id=qKAtjJoXXpwC&pg=PA222 The Rough Guide to Oman.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211035637/https://books.google.com/books?id=qKAtjJoXXpwC&pg=PA222 |date=11 February 2023 }} The Rough Guide to Oman. 2011.</ref>

=== 18th and 19th centuries ===
[[File:Sultan's Palace, Zanzibar.JPG|thumb|left|The [[Palace Museum, Zanzibar|Sultan's Palace]] in [[Zanzibar]], which was once Oman's capital and residence of its sultans]]
After the Omanis expelled the [[Persians]], Ahmed bin Sa'id Albusaidi became the elected Imam of Oman on 20 November 1744, with [[Rustaq]] serving as the capital. Since the revival of the Imamate with the Yaruba dynasty, the Omanis continued with the elective system but, provided that the person is deemed qualified, gave preference to a member of the ruling family.<ref name=HTSHC>Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000054 History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856 (83/612) ''British National Archive''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310085008/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000054 |date=10 March 2021 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 83. QDL.</ref> Following Imam Ahmed's death in 1783, his son, Said bin Ahmed became the elected Imam. His son, Seyyid Hamed bin Said, overthrew the representative of his father the Imam in Muscat and obtained the possession of Muscat fortress. Hamed ruled as "Seyyid". Afterwards, Seyyid Sultan bin Ahmed, the uncle of Seyyid Hamed, took over power. Seyyid [[Said bin Sultan]] succeeded Sultan bin Ahmed.<ref name=HTSHC1>Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000057 History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856 (86/612).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707162506/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000057 |date=7 July 2022 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 86. QDL.</ref><ref name=HTSHC3>Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x00005d History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856 (92/612) ''British National Archive''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707160946/http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x00005d |date=7 July 2022 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 92. QDL.</ref> During the entire 19th century, in addition to Imam Said bin Ahmed who retained the title until he died in 1803, [[Azzan bin Qais]] was the only elected Imam of Oman. His rule started in 1868. However, the British refused to accept Imam Azzan as a ruler, as he was viewed as inimical to their interests. This view played an instrumental role in supporting the deposition of Imam Azzan in 1871 by his cousin, Sayyid Turki, a son of the late Sayyid Said bin Sultan, and brother of [[Barghash bin Said of Zanzibar|Sultan Barghash of Zanzibar]], who Britain deemed to be more acceptable.<ref name=ABQOLR>Robert Geran Landen. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/598849?read-now=1&seq=2#page_scan_tab_contents Oman Since 1856: Disruptive Modernization in a Traditional Arab Society.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710035950/https://www.jstor.org/stable/598849?read-now=1&seq=2#page_scan_tab_contents |date=10 July 2022 }} Oman Since 1856: Disruptive Modernization in a Traditional Arab Society. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Pages 581–583. JSTOR. 1970. Vol. 90, No. 4.</ref>

Oman's Imam Sultan, defeated ruler of Muscat, was granted sovereignty over [[Gwadar]], an area of modern-day Pakistan.<ref group=note>In 1783, when Seyyid Said succeeded to the "masnad" of Muscat and Oman (an independent state founded in 1749), he fell out with his brother Imam Sultan, who fled to safety in Makran and entered into communication with Nasir Khan of Kalat. Said was granted the Kalat share of the revenues of Gwadar and lived there until 1797 when he came to rule over Muscat and Oman.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dawn.com.pk/weekly/cowas/20050911.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609072245/http://www.dawn.com.pk/weekly/cowas/20050911.htm |archive-date=9 June 2010 |title=DAWN – Cowasjee Corner; September 11, 2005 |first=Ardeshir |last=Cowasjee |date=11 September 2005 |publisher=DAWN Group of Newspapers |access-date=27 July 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==== British de facto colonisation ====
The [[British empire]] was keen to dominate southeast Arabia to stifle the growing power of other European states and to curb the Omani maritime power that grew during the 17th century.<ref name=BOR/><ref name=OQ/> The British empire over time, starting from the late 18th century, began to establish a series of treaties with the sultans with the objective of advancing British political and economic interest in Muscat, while granting the sultans military protection.<ref name=OQ/><ref name=BOR>{{cite news |url=https://www.qdl.qa/en/close-relationship-britain-and-oman-1750|title=A Close Relationship: Britain and Oman Since 1750 |author=Dr Francis Owtram |publisher=QDL|date=11 December 2014 |access-date=27 July 2019 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308192336/https://www.qdl.qa/en/close-relationship-britain-and-omamn-1750 |url-status=live}} 2014.</ref> In 1798, the first treaty between the British [[East India Company]] and the Albusaidi dynasty was signed by Sayyid Sultan bin Ahmed. The treaty aimed to block commercial competition of the French and the Dutch as well as obtain a concession to build a British factory at [[Bandar Abbas]].<ref name=HOIOO>[Joseph A. Kechichian "Oman and the World: The Emergence of an Independent Foreign Policy" RAND 1995]</ref><ref name=OmanForeignPolicy/><ref name=HTSHC2>Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x00005a History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856 (89/612)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308153139/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x00005a |date=8 March 2021 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 89. QDL.</ref> A second treaty was signed in 1800, which stipulated that a British representative shall reside at the port of Muscat and manage all external affairs with other states.<ref name=HTSHC2/> As the Omani Empire weakened, the British influence over Muscat grew throughout the nineteenth century.<ref name=OQCP/>

{{multiple image
| align             = right
| direction         = vertical
| width             = 220
| image1            = Muscat Squadron.png
| caption1          = A [[Royal Navy|British naval squadron]] in [[Muscat]]<ref name=BNSIM>Muscat and the Monsoon. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/muscat-and-monsoon British National Archive: Muscat and the Monsoon] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308145949/https://www.qdl.qa/en/muscat-and-monsoon |date=8 March 2021 }} British National Archive. QDL.</ref>
}}
In 1854, a deed of cession of the Omani [[Kuria Muria]] islands to Britain was signed by the sultan of Muscat and the British government.<ref name=KMITTB>A Collection of Treaties and Engagements. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023550810.0x000037 British National Archives: ''A Collection of Treaties and Engagements relating to the Persian Gulf Shaikhdoms and the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman in force up to the End of 1953' &#91;26v&#93; (54/92)''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706133302/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023550810.0x000037 |date=6 July 2022 }} British National Archives. Page 54. QDL.</ref> The British government achieved predominating control over Muscat, which, for the most part, impeded competition from other nations.<ref name=BPCOM>Historical Summary of Events. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023415995.0x0000be British National Archive: Historical Summary of Events 189/222] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308180039/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023415995.0x0000be |date=8 March 2021 }} British National Archive. Page 189. QDL.</ref> Between 1862 and 1892, the Political Residents, [[Lewis Pelly]] and Edward Ross, played an instrumental role in securing British supremacy over the Persian Gulf and Muscat by a system of indirect governance.<ref name=ABQOLR/> By the end of the 19th century, and with the loss of its African dominions and its revenues, British influence increased to the point that the sultans became heavily dependent on British loans and signed declarations to consult the British government on all important matters.<ref name=BOR/><ref name=QDLM>Muscat and Oman Internal Affairs History. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023415995.0x0000c0 British National Archive: Muscat and Oman Internal Affairs History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308205414/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023415995.0x0000c0 |date=8 March 2021 }} British National Archive. Page 191. QDL.</ref><ref name=GR/><ref name=HLBB>The Financial Troubles of Said bin Taimur.[https://www.qdl.qa/en/financial-troubles-said-bin-taimur British National Archive: The Financial Troubles of Said bin Taimur] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111194717/https://www.qdl.qa/en/financial-troubles-said-bin-taimur |date=11 November 2020 }} British National Archive. QDL.</ref> The Sultanate thus came ''de facto'' under the British sphere.<ref name=GR/><ref name=QoO/>

Zanzibar was a valuable property as the main [[Indian Ocean slave trade|slave market]] of the Swahili Coast as well as being a major producer of cloves, and became an increasingly important part of the Omani empire, a fact reflected by the decision of the Sayyid [[Sa'id ibn Sultan|Sa'id bin Sultan]], to make it the capital of the empire in 1837. In 1856, under British arbitration, Zanzibar and Muscat became two different sultanates.<ref name=YDAASD>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/20694640?read-now=1&seq=10#page_scan_tab_contents E. C. B. MacLaurin "Oman and the Trucial Coast"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117102818/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20694640?read-now=1&seq=10#page_scan_tab_contents |date=17 January 2023 }} Oman and the Trucial Coast. Pages 65–76. The Australian Quarterly. JSTOR. 1958.</ref>

==== Treaty of Seeb ====
[[File:Maskat & Oman map.png|thumb|left|The split between the interior region (orange) and the coastal region (red) of Oman and Muscat]]
The [[Hajar Mountains]], of which the [[Jebel Akhdar (Oman)|Jebel Akhdar]] is a part, separate the country into two distinct regions: the interior, and the coastal area dominated by the capital, Muscat.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} The British imperial development over Muscat and Oman during the 19th century led to the renewed revival of the cause of the Imamate in the interior of Oman, which has appeared in cycles for more than 1,200 years in Oman.<ref name=OQ/> The British Political Agent, who resided in Muscat, owed the alienation of the interior of Oman to the vast influence of the British government over Muscat, which he described as being completely self-interested and without any regard to the social and political conditions of the locals.<ref name=Conditions>Muscat State Affairs. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100070535087.0x000015 British National Archive: File 8/67 Muscat State Affairs: Muscat– Oman Treaty] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708103001/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100070535087.0x000015 |date=8 July 2022 }} British National Archive. File 8/67. Page 20. QDL.</ref> In 1913, Imam Salim Alkharusi instigated an anti-Muscat rebellion that lasted until 1920 when the Sultanate established peace with the Imamate by signing the [[Treaty of Seeb]]. The treaty was brokered by Britain, which had no economic interest in the interior of Oman during that point of time. The treaty granted autonomous rule to the Imamate in the interior of Oman and recognized the sovereignty of the coast of Oman, the [[Muscat and Oman|Sultanate of Muscat]].<ref name=BOR/><ref name="smallwars">{{cite web |title=Jebel Akhdar |publisher=Britain's Small Wars |access-date=10 April 2012 |url=http://www.britains-smallwars.com/SAS/JebelAkhdar.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917071704/http://www.britains-smallwars.com/SAS/JebelAkhdar.html |archive-date=17 September 2013 }}</ref><ref name=TOSNT>Muscat Rising. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100070535087.0x000033 British National Archive: Muscat Rising, from April 1917 to January 1918 & resumed from April 1920 to Oct 1920] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707112144/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100070535087.0x000033 |date=7 July 2022 }} British National Archive QDL</ref><ref name=OAOI>Oman profile – Timeline. {{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14654492|title=BBC Middle East: Oman profile – Timeline (25 April 2018)|publisher=BBC News|date=25 April 2018|access-date=2 August 2019|archive-date=11 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220611185919/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14654492|url-status=live}} 25 April 2018.</ref> In 1920, Imam Salim Alkharusi died and Muhammad Alkhalili was elected.<ref name=OmanForeignPolicy/>

On 10 January 1923, an agreement between the Sultanate and the British government was signed in which the Sultanate had to consult with the British [[Political officer (British Empire)|political agent]] residing in Muscat and obtain the approval of the [[British Raj|High Government of India]] to extract oil in the Sultanate.<ref name=agreement>Undertaking by Sultan Taimur Regarding Oil. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023550810.0x00003d ''Undertaking by Sultan Taimur Regarding Oil''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309043538/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023550810.0x00003d |date=9 March 2021 }} British National Archives page 60 QDL</ref> On 31 July 1928, the [[Red Line Agreement]] was signed between Anglo-Persian Company (later renamed British Petroleum), Royal Dutch/Shell, Compagnie Française des Pétroles (later renamed Total), Near East Development Corporation (later renamed ExxonMobil) and Calouste Gulbenkian (an Armenian businessman) to collectively produce oil in the post-[[Ottoman Empire]] region, which included the Arabian peninsula, with each of the four major companies holding 23.75 percent of the shares while [[Calouste Gulbenkian]] held the remaining 5 percent shares. The agreement stipulated that none of the signatories was allowed to pursue the establishment of oil concessions within the agreed on area without including all other stakeholders. In 1929, the members of the agreement established [[Iraq Petroleum Company]] (IPC).<ref name=RLA>The 1928 Red Line Agreement. [https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/red-line United States Office of the Historian: The 1928 Red Line Agreement] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717191817/https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/red-line |date=17 July 2019 }} United States Office of the Historian.</ref> On 13 November 1931, Sultan Taimur bin Faisal abdicated.<ref name=AOST>Muscat Rising. [http://qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023415995.0x0000bf British National Archive: Muscat Rising, from April 1917 to January 1918 & resumed from April 1920 to Oct 1920] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225054303/https://qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023415995.0x0000bf |date=25 February 2021 }} British National Archive page 190 QDL</ref>

=== Reign of Sultan Said (1932–1970) ===
[[File:Said bin Taimur (cropped).png|thumb|right|upright|Sultan [[Said bin Taimur]] ruled from 1932 to 1970]]
[[Said bin Taimur]] became the sultan of Muscat officially on 10 February 1932. The rule of sultan Said, a very complex character, was backed by the British government, and has been characterised as being [[feudal]], [[reactionary]] and isolationist.<ref name=OAOI/><ref name=OQ/><ref name=GR/><ref name=BA/> The British government maintained vast administrative control over the Sultanate as the defence secretary and chief of intelligence, chief adviser to the sultan and all ministers except for two were British.<ref name=GR>Ian Cobain. [https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/sep/08/britains-secret-wars-oman The Guardian: Britain's secret wars] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160930170522/https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/sep/08/britains-secret-wars-oman |date=30 September 2016 }} Britain's Secret Wars. ''The Guardian''. 8 September 2016.</ref><ref name=Halliday>Fred Halliday. [https://books.google.com/books?id=VkYhBQAAQBAJ&dq=Fred%20Halliday%20arabia&pg=PT19 Arabia by Fred Halliday] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406013854/https://books.google.com/books?id=VkYhBQAAQBAJ&dq=Fred%20Halliday%20arabia&pg=PT19 |date=6 April 2023 }} Arabia. The Arabian Peninsula. Saqi Books. University of California. published 1974.</ref> In 1937, an agreement between the sultan and [[Iraq Petroleum Company]] (IPC), a consortium of oil companies that was 23.75% British owned, was signed to grant oil concessions to IPC. After failing to discover oil in the Sultanate, IPC was intensely interested in some promising geological formations near [[Fahud]], an area located within the Imamate. IPC offered financial support to the sultan to raise an armed force against any potential resistance by the Imamate.<ref name=OmansInsurgencies>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wkUhBQAAQBAJ&q=moff+oman&pg=PT59|title=Oman's Insurgencies: The Sultanate's Struggle for Supremacy|first=J. E.|last=Peterson|date=2 January 2013|publisher=Saqi|access-date=29 April 2018|via=Google Books|isbn=9780863567025|archive-date=11 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211035638/https://books.google.com/books?id=wkUhBQAAQBAJ&q=moff+oman&pg=PT59|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=FTWAO>Historical Summary of Events in the Persian Gulf. {{cite web|url=https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023415996.0x000009|title=British National Archive: Historical Summary of Events in the Persian Gulf (208/222)|publisher=QDL|date=30 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190723150646/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023415996.0x000009|archive-date=23 July 2019}} British National Archive. Page 208.</ref>

Upon the outbreak of [[World War II]], the sultan of Oman declared war on Germany on September 10, 1939.<ref name="WWII"/> During the war, Oman had a strategic role in the defence of the United Kingdom's trade routes. Oman was never attacked during the war. In 1943, the [[Royal Air Force]] established stations on [[Masirah Island]] ([[RAF Masirah]]) and at [[Ras al Hadd]]. [[Air-sea rescue]] units were also stationed in Oman. [[No. 244 Squadron RAF]] flew [[Bristol Blenheim V]] [[light bomber]]s and [[Vickers Wellington XIII]]s out of RAF Masirah on anti-submarine duties in the Gulf of Oman and the northern [[Arabian Sea]], while [[No. 209 Squadron RAF]], [[No. 265 Squadron RAF]], and [[No. 321 Squadron RAF]] flew [[Consolidated PBY Catalina]]s out of Umm Ruşayş on Masirah Island.<ref name="RAF"/> On October 16, 1943, the German [[U-Boat]] ''[[German submarine U-533|U-533]]'' was sunk in the Gulf of Oman after being struck by [[depth charge]]s dropped by a Bristol Blenheim from No. 244 Squadron RAF. The wreck settled at a depth of 108 meters (354 feet) approximately 25 nautical miles (46 kilometres) off the [[Fujairah]] coast. 52 crew members died, with the sole survivor, ''[[Matrosengefreiter]]'' Günther Schmidt, taken aboard HMIS ''Hiravati'' near [[Khor Fakkan]] and made a [[prisoner of war]]. The wreck is now a popular recreational diving site.<ref name="UBoat"/><ref name="UBoat2"/>

The December 1951 Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation (covering commerce, oil reserves and navigation) between Oman and the United Kingdom recognized the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman as a fully independent state.

In 1955, the [[enclave and exclave|exclave]] coastal [[Makran]] strip acceded to Pakistan and was made a district of its [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan province]], while [[Gwadar]] remained in Oman. On 8 September 1958, Pakistan [[Gwadar Purchase|purchased the Gwadar enclave]] from Oman for [[United States dollar|US$]]3&nbsp;million.<ref group=note>Gwadar remained an Omani possession as part of the Sultanate until September 1958</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oman.org/bonn_007.htm |title=International trade networks: The Omani Enclave of Gwadar – Conference on German and International Research on Oman, Bonn 1998: abstracts |author=Nicolin, Beatrice |date=25 May 1998 |publisher=Conference on German and International Research on Oman |location=Bonn |access-date=27 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200104031644/http://www.oman.org/bonn_007.htm |archive-date=4 January 2020}}</ref> Gwadar then became a [[tehsil]] in the Makran district.

====Jebel Akhdar War====
{{further|Jebel Akhdar War}}
Sultan Said bin Taimur expressed his interest in occupying the Imamate right after the death of Imam Alkhalili, thus taking advantage of any potential instability that might occur within the Imamate when elections were due, to the British government.<ref name=Planning>Muscat State Affairs. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100055776091.0x000046 A.C.Gallowey: ''File 8/62 Muscat State Affairs: Principal Shaikhs and Tribes of Oman' &#91;35r&#93; (69/296)''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308132954/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100055776091.0x000046 |date=8 March 2021 }} Principal Shaikhs and Tribes of Oman. British National Archive. Page 69. QDL.</ref> The British political agent in Muscat believed that the only method of gaining access to the oil reserves in the interior was by assisting the sultan in taking over the Imamate.<ref name=idea2>Muscat State Affairs. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100055776091.0x00009a British Consulate Muscat: File 8/62 Muscat State Affairs: Principal Shaikhs and Tribes of Oman.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308161726/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100055776091.0x00009a |date=8 March 2021 }} British National Archive. File 8/62. Page 153. 25 May 1946. QDL.</ref> In 1946, the British government offered arms and ammunition, auxiliary supplies and officers to prepare the sultan to attack the interior of Oman.<ref name=RAFint>Muscat State Affairs. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100055776092.0x00005c The Foreign Office London: File 8/62 Muscat State Affairs: Principal Shaikhs and Tribes of Oman &#91;146r&#93; (291/296).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308185519/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100055776092.0x00005c |date=8 March 2021 }} British National Archive. Page 291. QDL.</ref> In May 1954, Imam Alkhalili died and [[Ghalib Alhinai]] was elected Imam.<ref>{{cite book|last=Peterson|first=John E.|title=Oman in the Twentieth Century: Political Foundations of an Emerging State|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YsUOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA182|publisher=Croom Helm|page=182|isbn=9780856646294|year=1978}}</ref> Relations between the Sultan Said bin Taimur, and Imam Ghalib Alhinai frayed over their dispute about oil concessions.

In December 1955, Sultan Said bin Taimur sent troops of the Muscat and Oman Field Force to occupy the main centres in Oman, including [[Nizwa]], the capital of the Imamate of Oman, and [[Ibri]].<ref name="smallwars"/><ref name=owaosa>Liquid Oman: oil, water, and causality in Southern Arabia. [https://rai.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1467-9655.12398 Liquid Oman: oil, water, and causality in Southern Arabia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117111638/https://rai.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1467-9655.12398 |date=17 January 2023 }} Royal Anthropological Institute. P. 147–162. 2016. City University of New York.</ref> The Omanis in the interior led by Imam Ghalib Alhinai, Talib Alhinai, the brother of the Imam and the Wali (governor) of Rustaq, and Suleiman bin Hamyar, who was the Wali (governor) of Jebel Akhdar, defended the Imamate in the [[Jebel Akhdar War]] against British-backed attacks by the Sultanate. In July 1957, the Sultan's forces were withdrawing, but they were repeatedly ambushed, sustaining heavy casualties.<ref name="smallwars"/> Sultan Said, however, with the intervention of British infantry (two companies of the [[Cameronians (Scottish Rifles)|Cameronians]]), armoured car detachments from the British Army and [[RAF]] aircraft, was able to suppress the rebellion.<ref name=secretops>{{cite book|last=Ryan|first=Mike|title=Secret Operations of the Sas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8fiduMeiYAC&pg=PA68|publisher=Zenith Imprint|pages=68–70|year=2003|isbn=9780760314142}}{{Dead link|date=July 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The Imamate's forces retreated to the inaccessible [[Jebel Akhdar (Oman)|Jebel Akhdar]].<ref name=secretops/><ref name=OmansInsurgencies/>

Colonel [[David Smiley]], who had been seconded to organise the Sultan's Armed Forces, managed to isolate the mountain in autumn 1958 and found a route to the plateau from Wadi Bani Kharus.<ref name=modernhistoryowtram/> On 4 August 1957, the British Foreign Secretary gave the approval to carry out air strikes without prior warning to the locals residing in the interior of Oman.<ref name=BA/> Between July and December 1958, the British RAF made 1,635 raids, dropping 1,094 tons and firing 900 rockets at the interior of Oman targeting insurgents, mountain top villages, water channels and crops.<ref name=GR/><ref name=BA>Mark Curtis. [http://markcurtis.info/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/pro.Oman-1957-9.-Declassified.pdf British National Archives.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303221405/http://markcurtis.info/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/pro.Oman-1957-9.-Declassified.pdf |date=3 March 2021 }} Oman 1957-9. British National Archives. 2017.</ref> On 27 January 1959, the Sultanate's forces occupied the mountain in a surprise operation.<ref name=modernhistoryowtram/> Imam Ghalib, his brother Talib and Sulaiman managed to escape to [[Saudi Arabia]], where the Imamate's cause was promoted until the 1970s.<ref name=modernhistoryowtram>{{cite book|last=Owtram|first=Francis|title=A Modern History of Oman: Formation of the State since 1920|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=41h0bXfVtfYC&pg=PA106|publisher=I.B.Tauris|page=106|year=2004|isbn=9781860646171}}</ref> The exiled partisans of the now abolished Imamate of Oman presented the case of Oman to the [[Arab League]] and the United Nations.<ref name=LastImam>The Last Imam of Oman. [http://archive.arabic.cnn.com/2009/middle_east/12/1/imam.oman/index.html CNN Arabic: وفاة آخر أئمة عُمان في منفاه السياسي بالسعودية] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411114926/http://archive.arabic.cnn.com/2009/middle_east/12/1/imam.oman/index.html |date=11 April 2022 }} CNN Arabic News. 1 December 2009. Muscat, Oman.</ref><ref name=theNYTimes>10 Arab States Ask U.N. Debate On Oman. [https://www.nytimes.com/1960/10/01/archives/10-arab-states-ask-un-debate-on-oman.html?rref=collection%2Ftimestopic%2FOman The New York Times. 01 October 1960.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117112308/https://www.nytimes.com/1960/10/01/archives/10-arab-states-ask-un-debate-on-oman.html?rref=collection%2Ftimestopic%2FOman |date=17 January 2023 }} ''The New York Times''.</ref> On 11 December 1963, the UN General Assembly decided to establish an Ad-Hoc Committee on Oman to study the 'Question of Oman' and report back to the General Assembly.<ref name=Ad-Hoc>Question of Oman. [https://search.archives.un.org/uploads/r/united-nations-archives/0/9/5/0958bfcb1caaade73cd80426845d3d2743e4225cf8a9476b5783f22427ca28ec/S-0884-0014-13-00001.pdf United Nations Archives.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818110603/https://search.archives.un.org/uploads/r/united-nations-archives/0/9/5/0958bfcb1caaade73cd80426845d3d2743e4225cf8a9476b5783f22427ca28ec/S-0884-0014-13-00001.pdf |date=18 August 2021 }} United Nations Archives.</ref> The UN General Assembly adopted the 'Question of Oman' resolution in 1965, 1966 and again in 1967 that called upon the British government to cease all repressive action against the locals, end British control over Oman and reaffirmed the inalienable right of the Omani people to self-determination and independence.<ref name=firstResAd>20th Session Adopted Resolutions. [https://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/regular/20 United Nations: ''20th Session Adopted Resolutions''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517102749/https://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/regular/20 |date=17 May 2022 }} United Nations. 20 September – 20 December 1965.</ref><ref name=firstresolutiondetails>2073 Question of Oman. [https://undocs.org/en/A/RES/2073(XX) United Nations: ''2073 Question of Oman''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308050835/https://undocs.org/en/A/RES/2073(XX) |date=8 March 2021 }} United Nations. 17 December 1965.</ref><ref name=QoO>2302 Question of Oman. [https://undocs.org/en/A/RES/2302(XXII) United Nations: ''2302 Question of Oman''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026094228/https://undocs.org/en/A/RES/2302(XXII) |date=26 October 2021 }} United Nations. 12 December 1967.</ref><ref name=ResAd>22nd Session Adopted Resolutions. [https://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/regular/22 United Nations: ''22nd Session Adopted Resolutions''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517102610/https://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/regular/22 |date=17 May 2022 }} United Nations. 19 September – 19 December 1967.</ref><ref name=UN1966>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldlii.org/int/other/UNGA/1966/112.pdf|title=UN 2238 Question of Oman Resolution (1966)|author=UN General Assembly|publisher=worldlii|access-date=27 August 2019|archive-date=7 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307184811/http://www.worldlii.org/int/other/UNGA/1966/112.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=UN1966resolutions>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldlii.org/int/other/UNGA/1966/|title=UN Adopted Resolutions (1966)|author=UN General Assembly|publisher=worldlii|access-date=27 August 2019|archive-date=25 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220425044515/http://www.worldlii.org/int/other/UNGA/1966/|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Dhofar War====
{{further|Dhofar War}}
In the [[Dhofar War]], which began in 1963, pro-[[Soviet Union|Soviet]] forces were pitted against government troops. As the rebellion threatened the Sultan's control of [[Dhofar]], Sultan Said bin Taimur was deposed in a [[1970 Omani coup d'état|bloodless coup]] in 1970 by his son [[Qaboos bin Said]] with [[United Kingdom|British]] support. Qaboos expanded the [[Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces]], modernized the state's administration and introduced social reforms. The uprising was finally put down in 1976 with the help of forces from Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Pakistan and Britain.

===Modern history (1970&ndash;present)===
[[File:Qaboos bin Said profile 1983 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Sultan [[Qaboos bin Said]], whose reign saw a rise in living standards and development, the [[Slavery in Oman|abolition of slavery]], the end of the [[Dhofar War|Dhofar Rebellion]], and the promulgation of Oman's constitution.]]
After deposing his father in 1970, [[Sultan Qaboos]] opened up the country, removed "Muscat and" from the country's name, embarked on economic reforms, and followed a policy of modernisation marked by increased spending on health, education and welfare.<ref name=econhrot>{{cite news|title=Happy and rich in an Omani toytown|url=http://www.economist.com/node/354276?zid=308&ah=e21d923f9b263c5548d5615da3d30f4d|newspaper=The Economist|date=31 August 2000|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121042946/https://www.economist.com/international/2000/08/31/happy-and-rich-in-an-omani-toytown?zid=308&ah=e21d923f9b263c5548d5615da3d30f4d|archive-date=21 November 2018}}</ref> Saudi Arabia invested in the development of the Omani education system, sending Saudi teachers on its own expense.<ref>{{Cite book |last=الفالح |first=عبدالعزيز بن عبدالله |title=كنت طالبا في عمان |publisher=دار الثلوثية |year=2021 |isbn=9786030362981 |language=ar}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=بعد 38 عاماً.. طلاب من سلطنة عمان يزورون معلمهم في السعودية |url=https://www.al-jazirah.com/2017/20170116/ln57.htm |access-date=2023-09-16 |website=www.al-jazirah.com |archive-date=3 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240103085547/https://www.al-jazirah.com/2017/20170116/ln57.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Indian Ocean slave trade|Slavery]], once a cornerstone of the country's trade and development, was outlawed in 1970.<ref name="plackett">{{cite web| url=http://www.al-fanarmedia.org/2017/03/omani-music-masks-unpleasant-past/| title=Omani Music Masks A Slave Trading Past| author=Benjamin Plackett| date=30 March 2017| publisher=Al-Fanar Media| access-date=17 July 2017| archive-date=17 January 2023| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117102831/https://al-fanarmedia.org/2017/03/omani-music-masks-unpleasant-past/| url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1971, Oman joined the United Nations, as did Bahrain, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates.

In 1981, Oman became a founding member of the six-nation [[Gulf Cooperation Council]]. Political reforms were eventually introduced. The country adopted its present [[Flag of Oman|national flag]] in 1995, resembling the previous flag but with a thicker stripe. In 1997, a royal decree was issued granting women the right to vote, and stand for election to the Majlis al-Shura, the [[Consultative Assembly of Oman]]. Two women were duly elected to the body. In 2002, voting rights were extended to all citizens over the age of 21, and the first elections to the Consultative Assembly under the new rules were held in 2003. In 2004, the Sultan appointed Oman's first female minister with portfolio, [[Aisha bint Khalfan bin Jameel|Sheikha Aisha bint Khalfan bin Jameel al-Sayabiyah]], to the post of National Authority for Industrial Craftsmanship.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2818553.stm|title=Oman appoints first female minister|website=BBC News|date=4 March 2003|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190917115643/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2818553.stm|archive-date=17 September 2019}}</ref> Despite these changes, there was little change to the actual political makeup of the government. The Sultan continued to rule by decree. Nearly 100 suspected Islamists were arrested in 2005 and 31 people were convicted of trying to overthrow the government. They were ultimately pardoned in June of the same year.<ref name="autogenerated1"/>

Before the [[2008 Summer Olympics|Beijing Olympics]], Oman became the stop of the Middle East's [[2008 Summer Olympics torch relay|torch relay]] on 14 April 2008, covering 20 kilometres.

Inspired by the [[Arab Spring]] uprisings that were taking place throughout the region, [[2011 Omani protests|protests occurred in Oman]] during the early months of 2011. While they did not call for the ousting of the regime, demonstrators demanded political reforms, improved living conditions and the creation of more jobs. They were dispersed by riot police in February 2011. Sultan Qaboos reacted by promising jobs and benefits. In October 2011, elections were held to the Consultative Assembly, to which Sultan Qaboos promised greater powers. The following year, the government began a crackdown on internet criticism. In September 2012, trials began of 'activists' accused of posting "abusive and provocative" criticism of the government online. Six were given jail terms.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14654492 |title=Oman profile – Timeline |work=BBC News |date=11 September 2012 |access-date=18 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190510071946/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14654492|archive-date=10 May 2019}}</ref>

In 2013, Oman achieved its status as the elimination of [[malaria]] diagnoses, according to the [[World Health Organization|World Health Organisation]] (WHO).

Qaboos, at the time the Arab world's longest-serving ruler, died on 10 January 2020.<ref name = BBC>{{cite news|url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-50902476|title= Sultan Qaboos of Oman dies aged 79|date = 11 January 2020|access-date = 10 January 2020|work = [[BBC News]]|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200405082103/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-50902476|archive-date = 5 April 2020}}</ref> He was succeeded by his first cousin [[Haitham bin Tariq]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1611351/middle-east|title=Haitham bin Tariq appointed new ruler of Oman|website=Arab News|date=11 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113223453/https://www.arabnews.com/node/1611351/middle-east|archive-date=13 January 2020}}</ref> On 12 January 2021, Haitham named his eldest son, [[Theyazin bin Haitham]], as the country's first [[Crown Prince of Oman|crown prince]] and heir to the throne with an amendment to the [[Basic Statute of Oman|Basic Statute]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 January 2021 |title=Sultan Haitham appoints son Theyazin as Oman's first Crown Prince |url=https://gulfnews.com/world/gulf/oman/sultan-haitham-appoints-son-theyazin-as-omans-first-crown-prince-1.1610463211104 |access-date=2021-01-13 |website=Gulf News |language=en}}</ref>