Editing Oak Ridge National Laboratory (section)

== History ==
[[Image:X10 Reactor Face.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Workers in 1943 loading uranium slugs into the [[X-10 Graphite Reactor]] (now a National Historic Landmark)]]

In 1934 the [[Freel Farm Mound Site]], an archaeological site and burial mound of the [[Late Woodland period]] was excavated.<ref name="US Dept 1 group" >{{cite book|last=Administration, U.S. Department of Energy: National Nuclear Security|title=Findings of No Significant Impact and Final Environmental Assessment for the Y-12 Potable Water System Upgrade|year=2006|publisher=U.S. Department of Energy|location=Oak Ridge, TN}}</ref> The site is currently inundated by [[Melton Hill Lake]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Fielder |first=George F Jr. |url=http://www.ornl.gov/info/reports/1974/3445603172117.pdf |title=Archaeological Survey with Emphasis on Prehistoric Sites of the Oak Ridge Reservation Oak Ridge Tennessee |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |year=1974 |location=Oak Ridge, TN}}</ref>

The city of [[Oak Ridge, Tennessee|Oak Ridge]] was established by the [[United States Army Corps of Engineers|Army Corps of Engineers]] as part of the [[Clinton Engineer Works]] in 1942 on isolated farm land as part of the [[Manhattan Project]].<ref name="bigproblems">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/ornlhome/ornl_brochure.pdf |title=Solving the Big Problems |year=2007 |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=November 11, 2012 |archive-date=October 16, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016233405/http://www.ornl.gov/ornlhome/ornl_brochure.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> During World War II, advanced research for the government was managed at the site by the [[University of Chicago]]'s [[Metallurgical Laboratory]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ornl.gov/timeline#event-under-construction |title=Timeline of ORNL Science – construction |website=www.ornl.gov |access-date=February 11, 2019}}</ref> In 1943, construction of the Clinton Laboratories, what would later be known as the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, was completed.<ref name=bigproblems/><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Clinton Lab occupies many Y-12 buildings and becomes Oak Ridge National Laboratory |url=http://www.y12.doe.gov/sites/default/files/assets/document/08-05-22.pdf |access-date=August 25, 2023 |website=y12.doe.gov}}</ref> The site was chosen for the [[X-10 Graphite Reactor]], used to produce [[plutonium]] from natural [[uranium]]. [[Enrico Fermi]] and his colleagues developed the world's second self-sustaining [[nuclear reactor]] after Fermi's previous experiment, the [[Chicago Pile-1]].  The X-10 was the first reactor designed for continuous operation.<ref name="x10">{{Cite web |url={{NHLS url|id=66000720}} |title=X-10 Reactor, Graphite Reactor |last=Rettig |first=Polly |date=December 8, 1975 |publisher=National Register of Historic Places |access-date=November 11, 2012}}</ref>

After the end of World War II, management of the lab was contracted by the US government to [[Monsanto]]; however, they withdrew in 1947.<ref name="swords">{{Cite web |date=April 8, 2006 |title=Swords to Plowshares: A Short History of Oak Ridge National Laboratory (1943–1993) |url=http://www.ornl.gov/info/swords/swords.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121201205140/http://www.ornl.gov/info/swords/swords.shtml |archive-date=December 1, 2012 |access-date=November 11, 2012 |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory}}</ref> The [[University of Chicago]] temporarily re-assumed responsibility, with the site receiving the prestigious "National" laboratory designation, until in December 1947, when [[Union Carbide|Union Carbide and Carbon Co.]], which already operated two other facilities at Oak Ridge, took control of the laboratory and renamed the site Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL).<ref name=":0" /><ref name="swords" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite news |date=September 8, 2011 |title=ORNL contractor gives $25K to Weinberg memorial effort |work=[[The Oak Ridger|Oak Ridger]] |url=http://www.oakridger.com/article/20110908/NEWS/309089996 |access-date=November 16, 2012}}</ref>

Post-war, the demand for [[military science]] had fallen dramatically, and the future of the lab was uncertain. The X-10 reactor and the laboratory's 1,000 employees were no longer involved in nuclear weapons.<ref name="bigproblems" /><ref name="swords" /> Instead, it was used for scientific research.<ref name="x10" /> In 1946 the first [[Isotopes in medicine|medical isotopes]] were produced in the X-10 reactor, and by 1950 almost 20,000 samples had been shipped to various hospitals.<ref name="x10" /><ref name="swords" /> The quantity and variety of [[radionuclide]]s produced by X-10 for medicine grew steadily in the 1950s. ORNL was the only Western source of [[californium-252]].<ref name="swords" /> ORNL scientists also performed the world's first successful [[bone marrow transplant]] in mice by suppressing their [[immune system]]s.<ref name="swords" />

[[File:MSRE Core.JPG|thumb|The core of the [[Molten Salt Reactor Experiment]]]]

In 1950 the [[Oak Ridge School of Reactor Technology]] was established with two courses in reactor operation and safety; almost 1,000 students graduated.<ref name=swords/> Much of the research performed at ORNL in the 1950s was related to nuclear reactors as a form of energy production, both for propulsion and electricity. More reactors were built in the 1950s than in the rest of the ORNL's history combined.<ref name=swords/> One of their most influential projects was the [[light-water reactor]], a precursor to many modern nuclear power stations. The [[United States Armed Forces|US Military]] funded much of its development, for [[Nuclear marine propulsion|nuclear-powered submarines and ships]] of the [[US Navy]].<ref name="swords" /> The [[US Army]] also contracted the design of portable nuclear reactors in 1953 for heat and electricity generation in remote military bases.<ref name="timeline">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/v36_1_03/timeline/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040221093626/http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/v36_1_03/timeline/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 21, 2004 |title=ORNL Review Timeline |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=November 11, 2012 }}</ref>  The reactors were produced by the [[American Locomotive Company]] and used in [[Greenland]], the [[Panama Canal Zone]], and [[Antarctica]].<ref name="swords" />  The [[United States Air Force|US Air Force]] also contributed funding to three reactors, the lab's first computers, and its first particle accelerators.<ref name="swords" /> ORNL built its [[Aircraft Reactor Experiment|first molten salt reactor in 1954]] as a proof-of-concept for a proposed fleet of [[Strategic bomber|long-range bombers]], but it was never used.<ref name="swords" /><ref name="timeline" />[[File:Pentecost-johnson-ellington-gore-ornl.jpg|thumb|Cayce Pentecost, [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], [[Buford Ellington]] and [[Albert Gore Sr.]] operating mechanical hands at a hot cell at Oak Ridge, on October 19, 1958.]]Alvin M. Weinberg was named Director of Research, ORNL, and in 1955 Director of the Laboratory.<ref name="swords" /><ref name=":1" /> In the early 1960s there was a large push at ORNL to develop nuclear-powered [[desalination]] plants, where deserts met the sea, to provide water. The project, called Water for Peace, was backed by [[John F. Kennedy]] and [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] and was presented at a 1964 United Nations conference, but increases in the cost of construction and falling public confidence in nuclear power caused the plan to be shuttered.<ref name="swords" /><ref name="timeline" /> The Health Physics Research Reactor built in 1962 was used for [[radiation exposure]] experiments leading to more accurate [[Dosimetry|dosage limits]] and [[dosimeter]]s, and improved [[Radiation protection|radiation shielding]].<ref name="swords" />

In 1964 the [[Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment]] began with the construction of the reactor. It operated from 1966 until 1969 (with six months down time to move from [[Uranium-235|U-235]] to [[Uranium-233|U-233]] fuel) and proved the viability of [[molten salt reactor]]s, while also producing fuel for other reactors as a byproduct of its own reaction.<ref name="swords" /> The [[High Flux Isotope Reactor]] built in 1965 had the highest [[neutron flux]] of any reactor at the time.<ref name="swords" /> It improved upon the work of the X-10 reactor, producing more medical isotopes as well as allowing higher fidelity of materials research.<ref name="swords" /> Researchers in the biology division studied the effects of chemicals on mice, including [[air pollution|petrol fumes]], [[Health effects of pesticides|pesticides]], and [[Health effects of tobacco|tobacco]].<ref name="swords" /> 

[[File:ORMAK (46436229152).jpg|thumb|left|The inside of ORMAK, an early [[tokamak]], was gold plated for reflectivity]]

In the late 1960s, cuts in funding led to the cancellation of plans for another particle accelerator, and the [[United States Atomic Energy Commission]] cut the breeder reactor program by two-thirds, leading to a downsizing in staff from 5,000 to 3,800.<ref name="swords" /> In the 1970s, the prospect of [[fusion power]] was strongly considered, sparking research at ORNL. A [[tokamak]] called ORMAK, made operational in 1971, was the first tokamak to achieve a plasma temperature of 20 million Kelvin.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev25-34/chapter6.shtml |title=Responding to Social Needs |year=2002 |website=ORNL Review |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=January 22, 2013 |archive-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130224015418/http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev25-34/chapter6.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref> After the success of the fusion experiments, it was enlarged and renamed ORMAK II in 1973; however, the experiments ultimately failed to lead to fusion power plants.<ref name="swords" />[[File:S.R. Sapirie, Senator Albert Gore, Senator Lyndon Johnson, Dr. John Swartout, Looking at Model of Graghite Reactor at Oak Ridge National Lab. (6964225494).jpg|thumb|right|S.R. Sapirie, Senator [[Albert Gore Sr.]], Senator [[Lyndon Johnson]] and Dr.John Swartout looking at a model of a graphite reactor at [[Oak Ridge National Lab]], on October 19, 1958.]]

The [[United States Atomic Energy Commission|US Atomic Energy Commission]] (AEC) required improved safety standards in the early 1970s for nuclear reactors, so ORNL staff wrote almost 100 requirements covering many factors including fuel transport and earthquake resistance. In 1972 the AEC held a series of public hearings where emergency cooling requirements were highlighted and the safety requirements became more stringent.<ref name="swords" /> Also in 1972, [[Peter Mazur]], a biologist at ORNL, froze with [[liquid nitrogen]], thawed and implanted mouse [[embryo]]s in a [[surrogate mother]]. The mouse pups were born healthy.<ref name="swords" /> The technique is popular in the livestock industry, as it allows the embryos of valuable cattle to be transported easily and a prize cow can have multiple eggs extracted and thus, through [[In vitro fertilisation|''in vitro'' fertilisation]], have many more offspring than would naturally be possible.<ref name="swords" />

In 1974 Alvin Weinberg, director of the lab for 19 years, was replaced by [[Herman Postma]], a fusion scientist.<ref name="swords" /> In 1977 construction began for 6&nbsp;metre (20&nbsp;foot) [[Superconductivity|superconducting]] [[electromagnet]]s, intended to control [[Nuclear fusion|fusion reactions]]. The project was an international effort: three electromagnets were produced in the US, one in Japan, one in [[Switzerland]] and the final by remaining European states.<ref name="swords" /> ORNL was involved in analysing the damage to the core of the [[Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station]] after the [[Three Mile Island accident|accident in 1979]].<ref name="swords" /> 

The 1980s brought more changes to ORNL: a focus on efficiency became paramount. An accelerated climate simulation chamber was built that applied varying weather conditions to insulation to test its efficacy and durability faster than real time.<ref name="swords" /> Materials research into heat resistant [[Ceramic engineering|ceramics]] for use in truck and high-tech car engines was performed, building upon the materials research that began in the nuclear reactors of the 1950s.<ref name="swords" /> In 1987 the High Temperature Materials Laboratory was established, where ORNL and industry researchers cooperated on ceramic and alloy projects. The materials research budget at ORNL doubled after initial uncertainty regarding [[Reaganomics|Reagan's economic policy]] of less government expenditure.<ref name="swords" /> In 1981, the Holifield Heavy Ion Research Facility, a 25&nbsp;MV [[particle accelerator]], was opened at ORNL. At the time, Holifield had the widest range of ion species and was twice as powerful as other accelerators, attracting hundreds of guest researchers each year.<ref name="swords" />

The Department of Energy was concerned with the pollution surrounding ORNL, and it began clean-up efforts. Burial trenches and leaking pipes had [[Groundwater pollution|contaminated the groundwater]] beneath the lab, and radiation tanks were sitting idle, full of [[Radioactive waste|waste]]. Estimates of the total cost of clean-up were into the hundreds of millions of US dollars.<ref name="swords" /> The five older reactors were subjected to safety reviews in 1987, ordered to be deactivated until the reviews were complete. By 1989 when the High Flux Isotope Reactor was restarted, the US supply of certain medical isotopes was depleted.<ref name="swords" /> In 1989 the former executive officer of the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]], [[Alvin Trivelpiece]], became director of ORNL; he remained in the role until 2000.<ref name="swords" />

In 1992 [[whistleblower]] Charles Varnadore filed complaints against ORNL, alleging safety violations and retaliation by his superiors. While an administrative law judge ruled in Varnadore's favor, Secretary of Labor [[Robert Reich]] overturned that ruling. However, Varnadore's case saw prime contractor [[Martin Marietta]] cited for safety violations and ultimately led to additional whistleblower protection within DOE.<ref>Martin, Douglas, Charles Varnadore, whistleblower at lab, dies at 71, [[New York Times]], August 5, 2013, p. B8</ref>

In January 2019 ORNL announced a major breakthrough in its capacity to automate [[Plutonium-238|Pu-238]] production which helped push annual production from 50 grams to 400 grams, moving closer to [[NASA]]'s goal of 1.5 kilograms per year by 2025 in order to sustain its space exploration programs.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ornl.gov/news/nuclear-deep-space-travel |title=Nuclear–Deep space travel |last=Ellis |first=Ellis |website=www.ornl.gov |date=January 8, 2019 |access-date=February 5, 2019}}</ref>