Editing Norwich (section)

==History==
{{see also|Timeline of Norwich}}

===Origin===
The capital of the [[Iceni]] tribe was a settlement located near to the village of [[Caistor St Edmund]] on the [[River Tas]] about {{cvt|5|mi|km|0}} to the south of modern Norwich.{{sfn |Morley |2006}} After an uprising led by [[Boudica]] in about 60 AD, the Caistor area became the [[Roman Britain|Roman]] capital of [[East Anglia]] named ''[[Venta Icenorum]]'', literally "marketplace of the Iceni".{{sfn |Morley |2006}} This fell into disuse about 450 AD.

The [[Anglo-Saxons]] settled the site of the modern city some time between the 5th and 7th centuries,{{sfn |Adams |2005 |p=11}} founding the towns of ''Northwic'' ("North Harbour"), from which Norwich takes its name,{{sfn |Stenton |1970}} and ''Westwic'' (at [[Norwich Over the Water|Norwich-over-the-Water]]) and a lesser settlement at Thorpe. 

Norwich became settled as a town in the 10th century and then became a prominent centre of East Anglian trade and commerce attested by the presence of a mint.The name Norvic is attested on pennies minted during the reign of Æthelstan.

===Early English period and Norman conquest===
[[File:Norwich Cathedral, spire and south transept.jpg|thumb|[[Norwich Cathedral]] is one of the great Norman buildings of England.]]

It is possible that three separate early Anglo-Saxon settlements, one north of the river and two either side on the south, joined as they grew; or that a single Anglo-Saxon settlement, north of the river Wensum-Yare, emerged in the mid-7th century after the abandonment of the previous three. [[Mercia]]n coins and shards of pottery from the [[Rhineland]] dating from the 8th century suggest that long-distance trade was happening during this time. The Vikings were a strong cultural influence in Norwich for 40 to 50 years at the end of the 9th century, setting up an [[Anglo-Scandinavian]] district near the north end of present-day King Street. Between 924 and 939, during the reign of [[Æthelstan|King Æthelstan]], Norwich became fully established as a town, with its own mint. The word ''Norvic'' appears on coins across Europe minted during this period. The ancient city was a thriving centre for trade and commerce in East Anglia in 1004 when it was raided and burnt by [[Sweyn I of Denmark|Sweyn Forkbeard]], the [[Viking]] king of Denmark.

At the time of the [[Norman Conquest]], in 1067, the city was one of the largest in England. The [[Domesday Book]], compiled in 1086, states that the city had approximately 25 churches and a population of between 5,000 and 10,000. It also records the site of an Anglo-Saxon church in Tombland, the site of the Saxon market place and the later [[Norwich Cathedral|Norman cathedral]]. Norwich continued to be a major centre for trade, described officially as the [[Port of Norwich]]. [[Quern stone]]s and other artefacts from [[Scandinavia]] and the Rhineland have been found during excavations in Norwich city centre. These date from the 11th century onwards.

[[File:Norwich Castle.jpg|thumb|[[Norwich Castle]]'s 12th-century keep]]

[[Norwich Castle]] was founded soon after the Norman Conquest.<ref>{{PastScape |mnumber=132268 |mname=Norwich Castle |access-date=29 December 2010}}</ref> The [[Domesday Book]] records that 98 Saxon homes were demolished to make way for the castle.{{sfn |Harfield |1991 |pp=373, 384}} The [[Normans]] established a new focus of settlement around the Castle and the area to the west of it: this became known as the "New" or "French" borough, centred on the Normans' own market place, which survives today as Norwich Market, the largest permanent undercover market in Europe.<ref name="Visit Norwich"/>

In 1096, [[Herbert de Losinga]], [[Bishop of Thetford]], began construction of [[Norwich Cathedral]]. The chief building material for the Cathedral was limestone, imported from Caen in Normandy. To transport the building stone to the site, a canal was cut from the river (from the site of present-day Pulls Ferry) up to the east wall. Herbert de Losinga then moved his [[Episcopal see|See]] there, to what became the cathedral church for the [[Anglican Diocese of Norwich|Diocese of Norwich]]. The Bishop of Norwich still signs himself ''Norvic''. 

Norwich received a [[royal charter]] from [[Henry II of England|Henry II]] in 1158, and another from [[Richard I of England|Richard the Lionheart]] in 1194. After a riot in the city in 1274, Norwich has the distinction of being the only complete English city to be excommunicated by the Pope.{{sfn |Blomefield |1806}}

===Middle Ages===
The first recorded presence of [[Jews]] in Norwich is 1134.<ref name="heritagecity1">{{Cite web |url=http://www.heritagecity.org/research-centre/churches-and-creeds/jews-in-norwich.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130806235625/http://www.heritagecity.org/research-centre/churches-and-creeds/jews-in-norwich.htm |url-status=usurped |archive-date=6 August 2013 |title=Jews in Norwich |publisher=Heritagecity.org |access-date=13 September 2013}}</ref> In 1144, the Jews of Norwich were falsely accused of [[blood libel|ritual murder]] after a boy ([[William of Norwich]]) was found dead with stab wounds.<ref name="heritagecity1"/> William acquired the status of martyr and was subsequently [[canonization|canonised]]. Pilgrims made offerings to a shrine at the Cathedral (largely finished by 1140) up to the 16th century, but the records suggest there were few of them.{{sfn |Nilson |2001 |p=157}} In 1174, Norwich was sacked by the [[Flemish people|Flemings]]. In February 1190, all the Jews of Norwich were massacred except for a few who found refuge in the castle. 

At the site of a medieval well, the bones of 17 individuals, including 11 children, were found in 2004 by workers preparing the ground for construction of a Norwich shopping centre. The remains were determined by [[forensic science|forensic scientists]] to be most probably the remains of such murdered Jews, and a [[Genetic genealogy|DNA]] expert determined that the victims were all related so that they probably came from one [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi Jewish]] family.{{sfn |Jewish Telegraphic Agency |2011}} The study of the remains featured in an episode of the [[BBC Television|BBC television]] documentary series ''[[History Cold Case]]''.<ref>{{Cite episode |title=The Bodies in the Well |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0125kbf |series=History Cold Case |network=[[BBC HD]] |airdate=28 June 2011 |series-no=2 |number=3 |access-date=25 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110816170740/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0125kbf |archive-date=16 August 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> A research paper from 30 August 2022 confirmed the remains were most likely Ashkenazi Jews. The paper found that many of the victims had certain [[Jewish genetic diseases|medical disorders]] most often seen in Ashkenazi communities, suggesting that a [[population bottleneck]] had occurred among Ashkenazim before the 12th century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brace |first1=Selina |last2=Diekmann |first2=Yoan |last3=Booth |first3=Thomas |last4=Macleod |first4=Ruairidh |last5=Timpson |first5=Adrian |last6=Stephen |first6=Will |last7=Emery |first7=Giles |last8=Cabot |first8=Sophie |last9=Thomas |first9=Mark G. |last10=Barnes |first10=Ian |date=30 August 2022 |title=Genomes from a medieval mass burial show Ashkenazi-associated hereditary diseases pre-date the 12th century |journal=Current Biology |volume=32 |issue=20 |pages=4350–4359.e6 |language=English |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2022.08.036 |issn=0960-9822 |pmid=36044903 |pmc=10499757 |bibcode=2022CBio...32E4350B |s2cid=251935757}}</ref> This challenged traditional views among historians that the bottleneck had happened between the 14th and 16th centuries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=DNA from human remains found in medieval well shines new light on Jewish history |url=https://www.nhm.ac.uk/press-office/press-releases/DNA-shines-new-light-on-Jewish-history.html |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=National History Museum |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Medieval mass burial shows centuries-earlier origin of Ashkenazi genetic bottleneck |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/08/220830131610.htm |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=ScienceDaily |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Ethelbert Gate from Tombland, Norwich, UK.jpg|thumb|St Ethelbert's Gate at Tombland was built as penance for riots which occurred in the 1270s.]]

In 1216, the castle fell to Louis, Dauphin of France, and Hildebrand's Hospital was founded, followed ten years later by the [[Franciscan]] Friary and [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] Friary. The Great Hospital dates from 1249 and the College of St Mary in the Field from 1250. In 1256, Whitefriars was founded. In 1266 the city was sacked by the "Disinherited". It has the distinction of being the only English city ever to be excommunicated, following a riot between citizens and monks in 1274.{{sfn |Blomefield |1806}} 

From 1280 to 1340 the [[defensive wall|city walls]] were built. At around {{cvt|2 + 1/2|mi|km}}, these walls, along with the river, enclosed a larger area than that of the [[City of London]]. However, when the city walls were constructed it was made illegal to build outside them, inhibiting the expansion of the city. Part of these walls remains standing today. Around this time, the city was made a [[county corporate]] and became the seat of one of the most densely populated and prosperous [[ancient counties of England|counties]] of England. The engine of trade was [[wool]] from Norfolk's [[sheepwalk]]s. Wool made England rich, and the [[staple right|staple port]] of Norwich "in her state doth stand With towns of high'st regard the fourth of all the land", as [[Michael Drayton]] noted in ''[[Poly-Olbion]]'' (1612). The wealth generated by the [[wool#History|wool trade]] throughout the [[Middle Ages]] financed the construction of many fine churches, so that Norwich still has more medieval churches than any other city in Western Europe north of the [[Alps]]. Throughout this period Norwich established wide-ranging trading links with other parts of Europe, its markets stretching from Scandinavia to Spain and the city housing a [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] warehouse. To organise and control its exports to the [[Low Countries]], Great Yarmouth, as the port for Norwich, was designated one of the staple ports under the terms of the 1353 [[Statute of the Staple]].

===Early modern period (1485–1640)===
Hand-in-hand with the wool industry, this key religious centre experienced a Reformation significantly different from that in other parts of England. The magistracy in Tudor Norwich unusually found ways of managing religious discord whilst maintaining civic harmony.{{sfn |McClendon |1999}}

[[File:John Crome 002.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|''Mousehold Heath, Norwich'' by Norfolk-based artist [[John Crome]]]]

The summer of 1549 saw an unprecedented rebellion in Norfolk. Unlike popular challenges elsewhere in the Tudor period, it appears to have been [[Protestant]] in nature. For several weeks, rebels led by [[Robert Kett]] camped outside Norwich on [[Mousehold Heath]] and took control of the city on 29 July 1549 with the support of many of its poorer inhabitants. [[Kett's Rebellion]] was particularly in response to the enclosure of land by landlords, leaving peasants with nowhere to graze their animals, and the general abuses of power by the nobility. The uprising ended on 27 August when the rebels were defeated by an army. Kett was convicted of treason and hanged from the walls of Norwich Castle.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britainexpress.com/History/tudor/ketts-rebellion.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708183620/https://www.britainexpress.com/History/tudor/ketts-rebellion.htm |archive-date=8 July 2019 |url-status=live |title=Kett's Rebellion, 1549 |website=Passionate about British Heritage |publisher=Britain Express |first=David |last=Ross}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.tudorplace.com.ar/Documents/robert_ket_and_the_norfolk_risin.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913132214/http://www.tudorplace.com.ar/Documents/robert_ket_and_the_norfolk_risin.htm |archive-date=13 September 2018 |url-status=live |title=Robert Ket and the Norfolk Rising}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |first=Jon |last=McGregor |date=20 May 2019 |department=Travel |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2019/may/20/radicalism-rebellion-and-robert-kett-a-walk-through-norwichs-history |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708183615/https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2019/may/20/radicalism-rebellion-and-robert-kett-a-walk-through-norwichs-history |archive-date=8 July 2019 |url-status=live |title=Radicalism, rebellion and Robert Kett: a walk through Norwich's history}}</ref>

Unusually in England, the rebellion divided the city and appears to have linked Protestantism with the plight of the urban poor. In the case of Norwich, this process was underscored later by the arrival of [[Dutch people|Dutch]] and [[Flemish people|Flemish]] "[[Elizabethan Strangers|Strangers]]" fleeing persecution from the Catholics and eventually numbering as many as one-third of the city's population.{{sfn |Houlbroke |McClendon |2004 |p=257}} Large numbers of such exiles came to the city, especially Flemish Protestants from the Westkwartier ("Western Quarter"), a region in the [[Southern Netherlands]] where the first [[Calvinist]] fires of the [[Dutch Revolt]] had spread. Inhabitants of [[Ypres]], in particular, chose Norwich above other destinations.{{sfn |Fagel |2003 |p=52}} Perhaps in response to Kett, Norwich became the first provincial city to initiate compulsory payments for a civic scheme of poor relief, which it has been claimed led to its wider introduction, forming the basis of the later Elizabethan Poor Law of 1597–1598.{{sfn |Pound |2004 |pp=50–56}}

Norwich has traditionally been the home of various minorities, notably [[Flanders|Flemish]] and Belgian [[Walloons|Walloon]] communities in the 16th and 17th centuries. The great "stranger" immigration of 1567 brought a substantial Flemish and Walloon community of Protestant [[weaver (occupation)|weaver]]s to Norwich, where they are said to have been made welcome.{{sfn |Ketton-Cremer |1957}} The merchant's house which was their earliest base in the city — now a museum — is still known as [[Strangers' Hall]]. It seems that the strangers integrated into the local community without much animosity, at least among the business fraternity, who had the most to gain from their skills. Their arrival in Norwich boosted trade with mainland Europe and fostered a movement towards religious reform and radical politics in the city. By contrast, after being persecuted by the Anglican church for his [[Puritan]] beliefs, [[Michael Metcalf (puritan)|Michael Metcalf]], a 17th-century Norwich weaver, fled the city and settled in [[Dedham, Massachusetts]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=A New England Town |last=Lockridge |first=Kenneth |year=1985 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |location=New York |isbn=978-0-393-95459-3 |ref=arv |pages=[https://archive.org/details/newenglandtown00lock/page/57 57–58] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/newenglandtown00lock/page/57}}</ref>

The [[Domestic Canary|Norwich Canary]] was first introduced into England by Flemings fleeing from Spanish persecution in the 16th century. Along with their advanced techniques in textile working, they brought pet canaries, which they began to breed locally, eventually becoming in the 20th century a mascot of the city and the emblem of its football club, [[Norwich City F.C.]]: "The Canaries". Printing was introduced to the city in 1567 by Anthony de Solempne, one of the strangers, but it did not take root and had died out by about 1572.{{sfn |Stoker |1981}} Norwich's [[coat of arms]] was first recorded in 1562. It is described as: ''Gules a Castle triple-towered and domed Argent in base a Lion passant guardant [or Leopard] Or.'' The castle is supposed to represent Norwich Castle and the lion, taken from the [[Royal Arms of England]], may have been granted by King [[Edward III of England|Edward III]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.civicheraldry.co.uk/east_of_england.html |title=East of England |publisher=Civic Heraldry of England and Wales |access-date=7 September 2022}}</ref>

===Civil War to Victorian era===
In the [[English Civil War]], across the Eastern Counties, [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s powerful [[Eastern Association]] was eventually dominant. However, to begin with, there had been a large element of Royalist sympathy within Norwich, which seems to have experienced a continuity of its two-sided political tradition throughout the period. Bishop [[Matthew Wren]] was a forceful supporter of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]]. Nonetheless, [[Roundhead|Parliamentary]] recruitment took hold. The strong Royalist party was stifled by a lack of commitment from the aldermen and isolation from Royalist-held regions.{{sfn |Hopper |2004}} Serious inter-factional disturbances culminated in "The Great Blow" of 1648 when Parliamentary forces tried to quell a Royalist riot. The latter's gunpowder was set off by accident in the city centre, causing mayhem. According to Hopper,<ref>{{harvnb |Hopper |2004}}</ref> the explosion "ranks among the largest of the century". Stoutly defended though East Anglia was by the Parliamentary army, there were said to have been pubs in Norwich where the king's health was still drunk and the name of the Protector sung to ribald verse.

At the cost of some discomfort to the Mayor, the moderate [[Joseph Hall (bishop)|Joseph Hall]] was targeted because of his position as Bishop of Norwich. Norwich was marked in the period after the [[Restoration (England)|Restoration]] of 1660 and the ensuing century by a golden age of its cloth industry, comparable only to those in the [[West Country]] and Yorkshire,{{sfn |Rawcliffe|Wilson|Clark|2004}} but unlike other cloth-manufacturing regions, Norwich weaving brought greater urbanisation, mainly concentrated in the surrounds of the city itself, creating an urban society, with features such as leisure time, alehouses and other public forums of debate and argument.{{sfn |Wilson |2004b}}

[[File:Original Norfolk and Norwich Hospital - geograph.org.uk - 84361.jpg|thumb|Founded in 1771, the [[Norfolk and Norwich Hospital]] cared for the city's poor and sick. It closed in 2003 after services were moved to the [[Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital]].]]

Norwich in the late 17th century was riven politically. Churchman [[Humphrey Prideaux]] described "two factions, [[Whig (British political party)|Whig]] and [[Tories (British political party)|Tory]], and both contend for their way with the utmost violence."{{sfn |Knights |2004}} Nor did the city accept the outcome of the 1688 [[Glorious Revolution]] with a unified voice. The pre-eminent citizen, Bishop William Lloyd, would not take the oaths of allegiance to the new monarchs. One report has it that in 1704 the landlord of Fowler's alehouse "with a glass of beer in hand, went down on his knees and drank a health to James the third, wishing the Crowne [sic] well and settled on his head."{{sfn |Knights |2004 |pp=168–174}}

Writing of the early 18th century, Pound describes the city's rich cultural life, the winter theatre season, the festivities accompanying the summer assizes, and other popular entertainments. Norwich was the wealthiest town in England, with a sophisticated system of [[poor relief]], and a large influx of foreign refugees.{{sfn |Pound |2004 |p=61}} Despite severe outbreaks of plague, the city had a population of almost 30,000. This made Norwich unique in England, although there were some 50 cities of similar size in Europe. In some, like Lyon and [[Dresden]], this was, as in the case of Norwich, linked to an important proto-industry, such as textiles or china pottery, in some, such as [[Vienna]], [[Madrid]] and [[Dublin]], to the city's status as an administrative capital, and in some such as [[Antwerp]], [[Marseille]] and [[Cologne]] to a position on an important maritime or river trade route.{{efn|1=For table of city sizes see {{harvtxt |Corfield |2004 |p=143}}}}

In 1716, at a play at the ''New Inn'', the Pretender was cheered and the audience booed and hissed every time [[George I of Great Britain|King George]]'s name was mentioned. In 1722 supporters of the king were said to be "hiss'd at and curst as they go in the streets," and in 1731 "a Tory mobb, in a great body, went through several parts of this city, in a riotous manner, cursing and abusing such as they knew to be friends of the government."{{efn |1=Reports quoted by {{harvnb |Knights |2004 |pp=168–174}}}} However the Whigs gradually gained control and by the 1720s they had successfully petitioned Parliament to allow all adult males working in the textile industry to take up the freedom, on the correct assumption that they would vote Whig. But it had the effect of boosting the city's popular [[Jacobitism]], says Knights, and contests of the kind described continued in Norwich well into a period in which political stability had been discerned at a national level. The city's Jacobitism perhaps only ended with 1745, well after it had ceased to be a significant movement outside Scotland.{{sfn |Knights |2004 |pp=168–174}} Despite the Highlanders reaching [[Derby]] and Norwich citizens mustering themselves into an association to protect the city, some Tories refused to join in, and the vestry of [[St Peter Mancroft]] resolved that it would not ring its bells to summon the defence. Still, it was the end of the road for Norwich Jacobites, and the Whigs organised a notable celebration after the [[Battle of Culloden]].{{sfn |Knights |2004 |pp=168–174}}

The events of this period illustrate how Norwich had a strong tradition of popular protest favouring Church and Stuarts and attached to the street and alehouse. Knights tells how in 1716 the mayoral election had ended in a riot, with both sides throwing "brick-ends and great paving stones" at each other.{{sfn |Knights |2004 |pp=168–174}} A renowned Jacobite watering-hole, the ''Blue Bell Inn'' (nowadays ''The Bell Hotel''), owned in the early 18th century by the high-church Helwys family, became the central rendezvous of the Norwich Revolution Society in the 1790s.{{sfn |Jewson |1975 |p=38}}

Britain's first provincial newspaper, the ''[[Norwich Post]]'', appeared in 1701. By 1726 there were rival Whig and Tory presses, and as early as mid-century, three-quarters of the males in some parishes were literate.{{efn |1=Quoted by {{harvnb |Knights |2004 |pp=181–182}}}} The Norwich municipal library claims an excellent collection of these newspapers, also a folio collection of scrapbooks on 18th-century Norwich politics, which Knights says are "valuable and important". Norwich alehouses had 281 clubs and societies meeting in them in 1701, and at least 138 more were formed before 1758. The [[Theatre Royal, Norwich|Theatre Royal]] opened in 1758, alongside the city's stage productions in inns and puppet shows in rowdy alehouses.{{sfn |Chandler |1998}}{{sfn |Blackwell |Blackwell |2007 |loc=Chap 2}} In 1750 Norwich could boast nine booksellers and after 1780 a "growing number of circulating and subscription libraries".{{sfn |Dain |2004}} {{harvnb |Knights |2004}} says: "[All this] made for a lively political culture, in which independence from governmental lines was particularly strong, evident in campaigns against the [[American Revolutionary War|war with America]] and for reform... in which trade and the impact of war with [[Revolutionary France]] were key ingredients. The open and contestable structure of local government, the press, the clubs and societies, and dissent all ensured that politics overlapped with communities bound by economics, religion, ideology and print in a world in which public opinion could not be ignored."{{sfn |Knights |2004 |pp=168–174}}

[[File:OctagonChapel.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|left|The [[Octagon Chapel, Norwich]]]]

Amid this metropolitan culture, the city burghers had built a sophisticated political structure. Freemen, who had the right to trade and to vote at elections, numbered about 2,000 in 1690, rising to over 3,300 by the mid-1730s. With growth partly the result of political manipulation, their numbers did at one point reach one-third of the adult male population.{{sfn |Knights |2004 |pp=168–174}} This was notoriously the age of [[rotten borough|"rotten"]] and [[pocket borough|"pocket"]] boroughs and Norwich was unusual in having such a high proportion of its citizens able to vote. "Of the political centres where the Jacobin propaganda had penetrated most deeply only Norwich and Nottingham had a franchise deep enough to allow radicals to make use of the electoral process."{{sfn |Thompson |1968 |p=513}} "Apart from London, Norwich was probably still the largest of those boroughs which were democratically governed," says {{harvnb |Jewson |1975}}, describing other towns under the control of a single [[fief]]dom. In Norwich, he says, a powerful Anglican establishment, symbolised by the Cathedral and the great church of St Peter Mancroft was matched by scarcely less powerful [[wikt:congeries|congeries]] of Dissenters headed by the wealthy literate body [of Unitarians] worshipping at the [[Octagon Chapel, Norwich|Octagon Chapel]].{{sfn |Jewson |1975}}

[[File:Map of Norwich 1781.jpg|thumb|Map of Norwich, 1781]]

In the middle of political disorders of the late 18th century, Norwich intellectual life flourished. [[Harriet Martineau]] wrote of the city's ''literati'' of the period, including such people as [[William Taylor (scholar)|William Taylor]], one of England's first scholars of German. The city "boasted of her intellectual supper-parties, where, amidst a pedantry which would now make laughter hold both his sides, there was much that was pleasant and salutary: and finally she called herself ''The Athens of England''."{{sfn|Martineau |1870}}

[[File:St Peter Mancroft.jpg|thumb|[[St Peter Mancroft]]]]

Despite Norwich's longstanding industrial prosperity, by the 1790s its wool trade had begun facing intense competition, at first from Yorkshire woollens and then, increasingly, from [[Lancashire]] cotton. The effects were aggravated by the loss of continental markets after Britain went to war with France in 1793.{{efn |1={{harvnb |Hayes |1958}} Quote: "a major city manufacturer, and government supporter, Robert Harvey Jr as writing on 12 March 1793: 'The consequences of this just and inevitable war visit this poor city severely and suspend the operations of the Dutch, German and Italian trade and the only lingering employment in the manufactory is the completion of a few Russian orders, and the last China [[camlet|cambletts]] which I hope will find encouragement in the new East India Charter. This languid trade has doubled our poor-rate and a voluntary subscription of above £2,000 is found inadequate to the exigencies of the poor."}} The early 19th century saw de-industrialisation accompanied by bitter squabbles. The 1820s were marked by wage cuts and personal recrimination against owners. So amid the rich commercial and cultural heritage of its recent past, Norwich suffered in the 1790s from incipient decline exacerbated by a serious trade recession.

As early in the war as 1793, a major city manufacturer and government supporter, Robert Harvey, complained of low order books, languid trade and doubling of the poor rate.{{efn |1=Quotations and facts from {{harvtxt |Wilson |2004b}}}} Like many of their Norwich forebears, the hungry poor took their complaints onto the streets. Hayes describes a meeting of 200 people in a Norwich public house, where "Citizen Stanhope" spoke.{{efn|1=Lord Stanhope was a radical peer, seen by many at the time as a dangerous menace. He is said to have given his rabble-rousing speech in a Norwich public house in 1794.}} The gathering "[roared its] applause at Stanhope's declaration that the Ministers unless they changed their policy, deserved to have their heads brought to the block; – and if there was a people still in England, the event might turn out to be so." Hayes says that "the outbreak of war, in bringing the worsted manufacture almost to a standstill and so plunging the mass of the Norwich weavers into sudden distress made it almost inevitable that a crude appeal to working-class resentment should take the place of a temperate process of education which the earliest reformers had intended."{{sfn |Hayes |1958 |pp=242–243}}

At this period opposition to [[William Pitt the Younger|Pitt]]'s government and their war came – in their case almost unanimously – from a circle of radical Dissenting intellectuals of interest in their own right. They included the Rigby, Taylor, Aitkin, Barbold, and Alderson families – all Unitarians - and some of the Quaker Gurneys (one of whose girls, [[Elizabeth Fry|Elizabeth]], was later, under her married name of Fry, to become a noted campaigner for prison reform). Their activities included visits to revolutionary France (before the execution of [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]]), the earliest British research into German literature, studies on medical science, petitioning for parliamentary reform, and publishing a highbrow literary magazine called "The Cabinet", in 1795. Their blend of politics, religion and social campaigning was seen by Pitt and Windham as suspicious, prompting Pitt to denounce Norwich as "the Jacobin city". [[Edmund Burke]] attacked John Gurney in print for sponsoring anti-war protests. In the 1790s, Norwich was second only to London as an active intellectual centre in England, and that it did not regain that level of prominence until the [[University of East Anglia]] was established in the late 20th century.<ref>Sources: C. B. Jewson: ''Jacobin City''; I. Scott: ''Reactions to Radicalism in Norwich 1989–1802''; J. P. Foynes: ''East Anglia against the Tricolor 1789–1815''; Cambridge Modern History.</ref>

By 1795, it was not just the Norwich rabble who were causing the government concern. In April of that year, the Norwich Patriotic Society was founded, its manifesto declaring "that the great end of civil society was general happiness; that every individual had a right to share in the government."{{sfn |Jewson |1975 |p=66}} In December the price of bread reached a new peak, and in May 1796, when William Windham was forced to seek re-election after his appointment as war secretary, he only just held his seat.{{efn |1=Before the 20th century it was the practice for a sitting member to seek re-election if appointed to ministerial office.}} Amid the disorder and violence that was such a common feature of Norwich election campaigns, it was only by the narrowest margin that the radical Bartlett Gurney ("Peace and Gurney – No More War – No more Barley Bread") failed to unseat him.{{sfn |Thompson |1994}}

Though informed by issues of recent national importance, the bipartisan political culture of Norwich in the 1790s cannot be divorced from local tradition. Two features stand out from a political continuum of three centuries. The first is a dichotomous power balance. From at least the time of the Reformation, Norwich was recorded as a "two-party city". In the mid-16th century, the weaving parishes fell under the control of opposition forces, as Kett's rebels held the north of the river, in support of poor clothworkers. Indeed there seems to be a case for saying that with this tradition of two-sided disputation, the city had steadily developed an infrastructure, evident in its many cultural and institutional networks of politics, religion, society, news media and the arts, whereby argument could be managed short of outright confrontation. Indeed, at a time of hunger and tension on the Norwich streets, with alehouse crowds ready to have "a Minister's head brought to the block", the Anglican and Dissenting clergy exerted themselves to conduct a collegial dialogue, seeking common ground and reinforcing the well-mannered civic tradition of earlier periods.

[[File:Surrey House on Surrey Street - geograph.org.uk - 22919.jpg|thumb|left|[[Surrey House]], historic headquarters of the Norwich Union insurance company]]

In 1797 [[Thomas Bignold]], a 36-year-old wine merchant and banker founded the first [[Norwich Union|Norwich Union Society]]. Some years earlier, when he moved from Kent to Norwich, Bignold had been unable to find anyone willing to insure him against the threat from highwaymen. With the entrepreneurial thought that nothing was impossible, and aware that in a city built largely of wood the threat of fire was uppermost in people's minds, Bignold formed the "Norwich Union Society for the Insurance of Houses, Stock and Merchandise from Fire". The new business, which became known as the Norwich Union Fire Insurance Office, was a "mutual" enterprise. [[Aviva|Norwich Union]] would later become the country's largest insurance giant.

From earliest times, Norwich was a textile centre. In the 1780s the manufacture of Norwich [[shawl]]s became an important industry<ref>[http://www.museums.norfolk.gov.uk/Research/Academic_Articles/Social_History/Norwich_Shawls/index.htm Norfolk Museums & Archaeology Service website] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324192534/http://www.museums.norfolk.gov.uk/Research/Academic_Articles/Social_History/Norwich_Shawls/index.htm |date=24 March 2012}} — "Norwich Shawls".</ref> and remained so for nearly a hundred years. The shawls were a high-quality fashion product and rivalled those of other towns such as [[Paisley, Renfrewshire|Paisley]], which had entered shawl manufacturing in about 1805, some 20 or more years after Norwich. With changes in women's fashion in the later [[Victorian period]], the popularity of shawls declined and eventually manufacture ceased. Examples of Norwich shawls are now sought after by collectors of textiles.

Norwich's geographical isolation was such that until 1845, when a railway link was established, it was often quicker to travel to [[Amsterdam]] by boat than to London. The railway was introduced to Norwich by [[Samuel Morton Peto|Morton Peto]], who also built a line to [[Great Yarmouth]]. From 1808 to 1814, Norwich had a station in the [[Semaphore line|shutter telegraph chain]] that connected the [[British Admiralty|Admiralty]] in London to its naval ships in the port of [[Great Yarmouth]]. A permanent military presence was established in the city with the completion of [[Britannia Barracks]] in 1897.<ref name=museum>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rnrm.org.uk/web_trail/web_bar_02.html |title=Britannia Barracks |publisher=Royal Norfolk Regiment Museum |access-date=9 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109225923/http://www.rnrm.org.uk/web_trail/web_bar_02.html |archive-date=9 November 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Bethel Street drill hall|Bethel Street]] and [[Cattle Market Street drill hall|Cattle Market Street]] [[drill hall]]s were built around the same time.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.drillhalls.org/Counties/Norfolk/TownNorwich.htm |title=Norwich |publisher=Drill halls project |access-date=16 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813144606/http://www.drillhalls.org/Counties/Norfolk/TownNorwich.htm |archive-date=13 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===20th century===
[[File:Waterloo Park Norwich Herbaceous Border.JPG|thumb|Waterloo Park, one of six parks built during the 1930s to help alleviate unemployment in the city]]

In the early 20th century, Norwich still had several major manufacturing industries. Among them were the large-scale and bespoke manufacture of shoes (for example the [[Start-rite]] and Van Dal brands, Bowhill & Elliott and Cheney & Sons Ltd respectively), clothing, joinery (including the cabinet makers and furniture retailer [[Arthur Brett and Sons]], which continues in business in the 21st century), structural engineering, and aircraft design and manufacture. Notable employers included [[Boulton & Paul]], Barnards (iron founders and inventors of machine-produced [[wire netting]]), and the electrical engineers Laurence Scott and Electromotors.

Norwich also has a long association with chocolate making, mainly through the local firm of Caley's, which began as a manufacturer and bottler of mineral water and later diversified into chocolate and [[Christmas crackers]]. The Caley's cracker-manufacturing business was taken over by Tom Smith in 1953,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.tomsmithcrackers.co.uk/ |title=Tom Smith Crackers |publisher=Tom Smith Crackers |access-date=13 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130827125125/http://www.tomsmithcrackers.co.uk/ |archive-date=27 August 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and the Norwich factory in Salhouse Road closed in 1998. Caley's was acquired by Mackintosh in the 1930s and merged with [[Rowntree's]] in 1969 to become Rowntree-Mackintosh. Finally, it was bought by [[Nestlé]] and closed in 1996, with all operations moving to [[York]] after a Norwich association of 120 years. The demolished factory stood where the Chapelfield development is now. Caley's chocolate has since reappeared as a brand in the city, though it is no longer made there.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.edp24.co.uk/content/edp24/news/story.aspx?brand=EDPOnline&category=News&tBrand=EDPOnline&tCategory=xDefault&itemid=NOED17%20Jul%202010%2008%3A08%3A21%3A243 |newspaper=Eastern Daily Press |title=Caley's New Cocoa Cafe |access-date=17 July 2010}}</ref>

[[HMSO]], once the official publishing and stationery arm of the British government and one of the largest print buyers, printers and suppliers of office equipment in the UK, moved most of its operations from London to Norwich in the 1970s. It occupied the purpose-built 1968 Sovereign House building, near Anglia Square, which in 2017 stood empty and due for demolition if a long-postponed redevelopment of Anglia Square went ahead.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://c20society.org.uk/building-of-the-month/sovereign-house-norwich|title=Sovereign House, Norwich – The Twentieth Century Society|website=c20society.org.uk}}</ref>

[[File:Jarrolds.JPG|thumb|[[Jarrolds]] department store has been based in Norwich since 1823.]]

[[Jarrolds]], established in 1810, was a nationally well-known printer and publisher. In 2004, after nearly 200 years, the printing and publishing businesses were sold. Today, the company remains privately owned and the Jarrold name is best recognised as being that of Norwich's only independent [[department store]]. The company is also active in property development in Norwich and has a business training division.<ref>[http://www.jarrold.co.uk/index.html Jarrold's store] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091101022117/http://www.jarrold.co.uk/index.html |date=1 November 2009}} Retrieved 16 November 2009.</ref>

====Pubs and brewing====
The city had a long tradition of brewing.<ref>[http://www.museums.norfolk.gov.uk/default.asp?Document=400.740.51x2 Norfolk Museums & Archaeology Service website] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727215221/http://www.museums.norfolk.gov.uk/default.asp?Document=400.740.51x2 |date=27 July 2011}} — "Brewing in Norwich".</ref> Several large [[brewery|breweries]] continued into the second half of the 20th century, notably Morgans, [[Steward & Patteson]], Youngs Crawshay and Youngs, Bullard and Son, and the Norwich Brewery. Despite takeovers and consolidation in the 1950s and 1960s, only the Norwich Brewery (owned by [[Watney Combe & Reid|Watney Mann]] and on the site of Morgans) remained by the 1970s. That too closed in 1985 and was then demolished. Only [[Microbrewery|microbreweries]] remain today.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holmes |first=Frances and Michael |title=Norwich Pubs and Breweries Past and Present |publisher=Norwich Heritage Projects |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-9566272-2-3}}</ref>

It was stated by Walter Wicks in his book that Norwich once had "a pub for every day of the year and a church for every Sunday". This was in fact significantly under the actual amount: the highest number of pubs in the city was in the year 1870, with over 780 beer-houses. A "Drink Map" produced in 1892 by the Norwich and Norfolk Gospel Temperance Union showed 631 pubs in and around the city centre. By 1900, the number had dropped to 441 pubs within the City Walls. The title of a pub for every day of the year survived until 1966, when the Chief Constable informed the Licensing Justices that only 355 licences were still operative, with the number still shrinking: over 25 had closed in the last decade.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.edp24.co.uk/news/the-city-of-pubs-but-more-than-25-have-closed-in-the-past-decade-1-5176681 |title=The city of pubs – but more than 25 have closed in the past decade |last=Betts |first=Marc |work=Eastern Daily Press |access-date=29 August 2018 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180830041430/http://www.edp24.co.uk/news/the-city-of-pubs-but-more-than-25-have-closed-in-the-past-decade-1-5176681 |archive-date=30 August 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2018, about 100 pubs remained open around the city centre.

====Second World War====
{{main|Norwich Blitz}}
Norwich suffered extensive bomb damage during [[World War II]], affecting large parts of the old city centre and Victorian terrace housing around the centre. Industry and the rail infrastructure also suffered. The heaviest raids occurred on the nights of 27/28 and 29/30 April 1942; as part of the [[Baedeker raids]] (so-called because Baedeker's series of tourist guides to the [[British Isles]] were used to select propaganda-rich targets of cultural and historic significance rather than strategic importance). [[Lord Haw-Haw]] made reference to the imminent destruction of Norwich's new [[City Hall, Norwich|City Hall]] (completed in 1938), although in the event it survived unscathed. Significant targets hit included the Morgan's Brewery building, [[Colman's]] [[Wincarnis]] works, [[Norwich City railway station|City Station]], the Mackintosh chocolate factory, and shopping areas including St Stephen's St and St Benedict's St, the site of Bond's [[department store]] (now [[John Lewis (department store)|John Lewis]]) and Curl's (later Debenhams) department store.

229 citizens were killed in the two Baedeker raids with 1,000 others injured, and 340 by bombing throughout the war — giving Norwich the highest air raid casualties in Eastern England. Out of the 35,000 domestic dwellings in Norwich, 2,000 were destroyed, and another 27,000 suffered some damage.<ref name="oldcity.org.uk">{{Cite web |url=http://www.oldcity.org.uk/norwich/history/history09.php |title=A History of Norwich – 20th Century Norwich |website=www.oldcity.org.uk |access-date=5 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205074817/http://www.oldcity.org.uk/norwich/history/history09.php |archive-date=5 February 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 1945 the city was also the intended target of a brief [[V-2 rocket]] campaign, though all these missed the city itself.<ref>4 Civil Defence Region bombing reports at National Archive</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Air Raid!: The Enemy Air Offensive against East Anglia, 1939–45 |last=Bowyer |first=Michael |publisher=Patrick Stephens |location=Wellingborough |date=1986 |isbn=9780850596854}} {{page needed|date=May 2020}}</ref>

====Post-war redevelopment====
[[File:Norfolk Terrace.JPG|thumb|The [[University of East Anglia]], which opened in 1963]]

As the war ended, the city council revealed what it had been working on before the war. It was published as a book – ''The City of Norwich Plan 1945'' or commonly known as "The '45 Plan"<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.invisibleworks.co.uk/the-1945-plan/ |title=Imagined futures past: '45 Plan – Invisible Works |date=13 May 2014 |work=Invisible Works |access-date=5 August 2018 |language=en-GB |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180805231040/https://www.invisibleworks.co.uk/the-1945-plan/ |archive-date=5 August 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> – a grandiose scheme of massive redevelopment which never properly materialised. However, throughout the 1960s to early 1970, the city was completely altered and large areas of Norwich were cleared to make way for modern redevelopment.

In 1960, the inner-city district of Richmond, between Ber Street and King Street, locally known as "the Village on the Hill", was condemned as slums and many residents were forced to leave by [[compulsory purchase order]]s on the old terraces and lanes. The whole borough demolished consisted of some 56 acres of existing streets, including 833 dwellings (612 classed as unfit for human habitation), 42 shops, four offices, 22 public houses and two schools.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.eveningnews24.co.uk/views/derek-james/returning-to-the-lost-village-on-the-hill-in-old-norwich-1-1697965 |title=Returning to the lost "village on the hill" in old Norwich |last=James |first=Derek |work=Norwich Evening News |access-date=30 August 2018 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180830110811/http://www.eveningnews24.co.uk/views/derek-james/returning-to-the-lost-village-on-the-hill-in-old-norwich-1-1697965 |archive-date=30 August 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> Communities were moved to high-rise buildings such as Normandie Tower and new housing estates such as Tuckswood, which were being built at the time. A new road, Rouen Road, was developed instead, consisting mainly of light industrial units and council flats. [[Ber Street, Norwich|Ber Street]], a once historic main road into the city, had its whole eastern side demolished. About this time, the final part of St Peters Street, opposite [[St Peter Mancroft]] Church, were demolished along with large Georgian townhouses at the top of Bethel Street, to make way for the new City Library in 1961.<ref name="oldcity.org.uk"/> This burnt down on 1 August 1994 and was replaced in 2001 by [[The Forum, Norwich|The Forum]].

A controversial plan was implemented for Norwich's inner ring-road in the late 1960s. In 1931, the city architect Robert Atkinson, referring to the City Wall, remarked that "in almost every position are slum dwellings put up during the last 50 years. It would be a great adventure to clear them all out and open up the road following the wall which has always been a natural highway. Do this, and you will have a wonderful circulating boulevard all around the city and its cost would be comparatively nothing."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gas Hill to Harvey Lane |url=http://www.georgeplunkett.co.uk/Norwich/gas.htm |website=www.georgeplunkett.co.uk |access-date=7 May 2020 |archive-date=26 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926174935/http://www.georgeplunkett.co.uk/Norwich/gas.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> To accommodate the road, many more buildings were demolished, including an ancient road junction – Stump Cross. Magdalen Street, Botolph Street, St George's Street, Calvert Street and notably Pitt Street, all lined with Tudor and Georgian buildings, were cleared to make way for a fly-over and a [[Brutalist architecture|Brutalist]] concrete shopping centre – [[Anglia Square Shopping Centre, Norwich|Anglia Square]] – as well as office blocks such as an [[Office of Public Sector Information|HMSO]] building, Sovereign House. Other areas affected were Grapes Hill, a once narrow lane lined with 19th-century Georgian cottages, which was cleared and widened into a dual carriageway leading to a roundabout. Shortly before construction of the roundabout, the city's old [[Chapel Field Road drill hall|Drill Hall]] was demolished, along with sections of the original city wall and other large townhouses along the start of Unthank Road (named after the Unthank family, local landowners).<ref>{{Cite web |last1=James |first1=Derek |title=The real story behind Unthank Road |url=https://www.eveningnews24.co.uk/views/norwich-golden-triangle-unthank-derek-james-1-5352280 |website=Evening News |date=12 January 2018 |access-date=25 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190125184433/https://www.eveningnews24.co.uk/views/norwich-golden-triangle-unthank-derek-james-1-5352280 |archive-date=25 January 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> 

The roundabout also required the north-west corner of [[Chapelfield Gardens]] to be demolished. About a mile of Georgian and Victorian terrace houses along Chapelfield Road and Queens Road, including many houses built into the city walls, was bulldozed in 1964. This included the surrounding district off Vauxhall Street, consisting of swathes of terrace housing that were condemned as slums. This also included the whole West Pottergate district, which contained a mix of 18th and 19th-century cottages and terraced housing, pubs and shops. Post-war housing and maisonettes flats now stand where the [[Rookery (slum)|Rookery slums]] once did. Some aspects of The '45 Plan were put into action, which saw large three-story Edwardian houses in Grove Avenue and Grove Road, and other large properties on Southwell Road, demolished in 1962 to make way for flat-roofed single-story style maisonettes that still stand today.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://norfolk.spydus.co.uk/cgi-bin/spydus.exe/FULL/PICNOR/BIBENQ/155332801/2219614,5?FMT=IMG |title=Spydus – Image Display – Record 5 of 8 |website=Civica |publisher=Norfolk County Council |language=en |access-date=9 September 2018 |archive-date=28 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210528133028/https://norfolk.spydus.co.uk/cgi-bin/spydus.exe/FULL/PICNOR/BIBENQ/155332801/2219614,5?FMT=IMG |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Heigham (Norwich)|Heigham]] Hall, a large Victorian manor house off Old Palace Road was also demolished in 1963, to build Dolphin Grove flats, which housed many Norwich families displaced by [[Slum clearance in the United Kingdom|slum clearance]].

Other housing developments in the private and public sector took place after the Second World War, partly to accommodate the growing population of the city and to replace condemned and bomb-damaged areas, such as the [[Heigham (Norwich)|Heigham Grove]] district between Barn Road and Old Palace Road, where some 200 terraced houses, shops and pubs were all flattened. Only St Barnabas church and one public house, The West End Retreat, now remain. Another central street bulldozed during the 1960s was St Stephens Street. It was widened, clearing away many historically significant buildings in the process, firstly for Norwich Union's new office blocks and shortly after with new buildings, after it suffered damage during the Baedeker raids. In Surrey Street, several grand six-storey Georgian townhouses were demolished to make way for Norwich Union's office. Other notable buildings that were lost were three theatres (the Norwich Hippodrome on St Giles Street, which is now a multi-storey car park, the Grosvenor Rooms and Electric Theatre in Prince of Wales Road) The Norwich Corn Exchange in Exchange Street (built 1861, demolished 1964), the Free Library in Duke Street (built 1857, demolished 1963) and the Great Eastern Hotel, which faced Norwich Station. Two large churches, the Chapel Field East Congregational church<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.eveningnews24.co.uk/news/memories-of-a-lost-norwich-church-1720824 |title=Memories of a lost Norwich church |first=Derek |last=James |date=23 February 2011 |website=Norwich Evening News}}</ref> (built 1858, demolished 1972) was pulled down, as well as the {{convert|100|foot|adj=on}} tall Presbyterian church in Theatre Street, built in 1874 and designed by local architect [[Edward Boardman]]. It has been said that more of Norwich's architecture was destroyed by the council in post-war redevelopment schemes than during the Second World War.{{Cn|date=August 2024}}

====Other events====
In 1976 the city's pioneering spirit was on show when Motum Road in Norwich, allegedly the scene of "a number of accidents over the years", became the third road in Britain to be equipped with [[sleeping policemen]], intended to encourage adherence to the road's {{cvt|30|mph|km/h}} speed limit.<ref name=Autocar197605>{{Cite journal |journal=[[Autocar (magazine)|Autocar]] |volume=144 |issue=4147 |title=News: Humps – another road |page=2 |date=1 May 1976}}</ref> The bumps, installed at intervals of {{convert|50|and|150|yards}}, stretched {{convert|12|feet}} across the width of the road and their curved profile was, at its highest point, {{cvt|4|inch|cm}} high.<ref name=Autocar197605/> The responsible [[Transport Research Laboratory|quango]] gave an assurance that the experimental devices would be removed not more than one year after installation.<ref name=Autocar197605/>

From 1980 to 1985 the city became a frequent focus of national media due to squatting in [[Argyle Street, Norwich|Argyle Street]], a Victorian street that was demolished in 1986, despite being the last street to survive the Richmond Hill redevelopment. On 23 November 1981, a minor [[1981 United Kingdom tornado outbreak|F0/T1 tornado]] struck Norwich as part of a record-breaking nationwide tornado outbreak, causing minor damage in Norwich city centre and surrounding suburbs.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.eswd.eu/cgi-bin/eswd.cgi |title=European Severe Weather Database |access-date=22 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222045014/http://www.eswd.eu/cgi-bin/eswd.cgi |archive-date=22 December 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>