Editing Nigeria (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of Nigeria|Timeline of Nigerian history}}

=== Prehistory ===
{{Main|Prehistory of Nigeria}}

[[Kainji Dam]] excavations showed ironworking by the 2nd century BC. The transition from [[Neolithic]] times to the [[Iron Age]] was accomplished without intermediate [[Bronze Age|bronze]] production. Some have suggested the technology moved west from the [[Nile Valley]]. But the [[Iron metallurgy in Africa|Iron Age]] in the [[Niger River]] valley and the forest region appears to predate the introduction of metallurgy in the upper savanna by more than 800 years, as well as predating it in the Nile Valley. More recent research suggests that iron metallurgy was developed independently in [[Africa]].<ref name="Tylecote 1975 see below">Tylecote 1975 (see below)</ref><ref name="Eggert 2014 51–59">{{cite book|title=Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context|last=Eggert|first=Manfred|publisher=Africa Magna Verlag Press|year=2014|editor-last=Breunig|editor-first=P|location=Frankfurt, Germany|pages=51–59|chapter=Early iron in West and Central Africa}}</ref><ref name="Eggert 2014 53–54">{{cite book|title=Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context|last=Eggert|first=Manfred|publisher=Africa Magna Verlag Press|year=2014|isbn=9783937248462|editor-last=Breunig|editor-first=P|location=Frankfurt, Germany|pages=53–54|chapter=Early iron in West and Central Africa|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BBn1BQAAQBAJ&q=Nok+Breunig&pg=PA38}}</ref><ref name=Holl-2020#2>{{cite journal|last1=Holl |first1=Augustin F. C.|title=The Origins of African Metallurgies |journal=Oxford Research Encyclopedias|date=June 2020|volume=22|issue=4 |pages=12–13|isbn=9780190854584|oclc=7869925414 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190854584.013.63 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342656145}}</ref>

[[File:Nok sculpture Louvre 70-1998-11-1.jpg|thumb|[[Nok]] sculpture, [[terracotta]]]]

The [[Nok culture|Nok civilization]] thrived between 1,500 BC and AD 200. It produced life-sized [[terracotta]] figures that are some of the earliest known sculptures in Africa<ref name="PB 2014">Breunig, Peter. 2014. Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context: p. 21.</ref><ref>Nicole Rupp, Peter Breunig & Stefanie Kahlheber, "[http://www.antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/kahlheber/ Exploring the Nok Enigma] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304112232/http://www.antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/kahlheber/ |date=4 March 2016}}", ''Antiquity'' 82.316, June 2008.</ref><ref>B.E.B. Fagg, "The Nok Culture in Prehistory", ''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' 1.4, December 1959.</ref><ref name="archaeology">{{cite book|last1=Kleiner|first1=Fred S. |first2=Christin J. |last2=Mamiya |title=Gardner's Art Through the Ages: Non-Western Perspectives|publisher=[[Cengage Learning]]|edition=13, revised|year=2009|page=194|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TlVeuxIgjwQC&q=Nok+terracotta+earliest|isbn=978-0-495-57367-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/nok/hd_nok.htm |title=Nok Terracottas (500 B.C.–200 A.D.) &#124; Thematic Essay &#124; Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History &#124; The Metropolitan Museum of Art |publisher=Metmuseum.org |date=2 June 2014 |access-date=16 July 2014 |archive-date=24 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024215836/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/nok/hd_nok.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> and smelted iron by about 550 BC and possibly a few centuries earlier.<ref name="Tylecote 1975 see below"/><ref name="Eggert 2014 51–59"/><ref name="Eggert 2014 53–54"/> Evidence of iron smelting has also been excavated at sites in the [[Nsukka]] region of southeast Nigeria: dating to 2000 BC at the site of Lejja<ref name="Eze-Uzomaka">{{cite journal|title=Iron and its influence on the prehistoric site of Lejja|url=https://www.academia.edu/4103707|last1=Eze–Uzomaka|first1=Pamela|website=Academia.edu|publisher=University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria|access-date=12 December 2014|archive-date=6 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206183226/https://www.academia.edu/4103707/Iron_and_its_influence_on_the_prehistoric_site_of_Lejja|url-status=live}}</ref> and to 750 BC at the site of [[Opi (archaeological site)|Opi]].

===Early history ===
{{Main|History of Nigeria before 1500}}
[[File:Queen Mother Pendant Mask- Iyoba MET DP231460.jpg|thumb|Royal [[Benin ivory mask]], one of Nigeria's most recognized artifacts. [[Benin Empire]], 16th century.]]

The ''[[Kano Chronicle]]'' highlights an ancient history dating to around 999 AD of the [[Hausa Kingdoms|Hausa]] [[Sahelian kingdoms|Sahelian city-state]] of [[Kano (city)|Kano]], with other major Hausa cities (or [[Hausa Bakwai]]) of [[Daura]], [[Hadejia|Hadeija]], [[Kano (city)|Kano]], [[Katsina (city)|Katsina]], [[Zazzau]], [[Rano]], and [[Gobir]] all having recorded histories dating back to the 10th century. With the spread of Islam from the 7th century AD, the area became known as ''[[Sudan (region)|Sudan]]'' or as ''Bilad Al Sudan'' (English: Land of the Blacks). Since the populations were partially affiliated with the Arab Muslim culture of [[North Africa]], they began [[trans-Saharan trade]] and were referred to by the Arabic speakers as ''Al-Sudan'' (meaning "The Blacks") as they were considered an extended part of the [[Muslim world]]. There are early historical references by medieval Arab and Muslim historians and geographers which refer to the [[Kanem–Bornu Empire]] as the region's major centre for Islamic civilization.{{citation needed|date=December 2023}}

The [[Kingdom of Nri]] of the Igbo people consolidated in the 10th century and continued until it lost its sovereignty to the British in 1911.<ref name="Juang3">{{cite book|last=Juang|first=Richard M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wFrAOqfhuGYC&pg=PA597|title=Africa and the Americas: culture, politics, and history: a multidisciplinary encyclopedia, Volume 2|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2008|isbn=978-1-85109-441-7|page=597}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Hrbek|first=Ivan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qDFcD0BuekQC&pg=PA254|title=Africa from the seventh to the eleventh Century|publisher=James Currey Publishers|year=1992|isbn=978-0-85255-093-9|page=254}}</ref> Nri was ruled by the [[List of rulers of Nri|Eze Nri]], and the city of Nri is considered to be the foundation of [[Igbo culture]]. Nri and [[Aguleri]], where the Igbo creation myth originates, are in the territory of the Umeuri clan. Members of the clan trace their lineages back to the patriarchal king-figure [[Eri (king)|Eri]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Uzukwu|first=E. Elochukwu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9hhmzVrYPHAC|title=Worship as Body Language|publisher=Liturgical Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-8146-6151-2|page=93|access-date=27 June 2024|archive-date=27 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240627040705/https://books.google.com/books?id=9hhmzVrYPHAC|url-status=live}}</ref> In West Africa, the oldest bronzes made using the [[lost wax process]] were from [[Igbo-Ukwu]], a city under Nri influence.<ref name="Juang3" />

The [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] kingdoms of [[Ife]] and [[Oyo Empire|Oyo]] in southwestern Nigeria became prominent in the 12th<ref name="Falola13">{{cite book|last1=Falola|first1=Toyin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XygZjbNRap0C&pg=PA23|title=A History of Nigeria|last2=Heaton|first2=Matthew M.|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2008|isbn=978-0-521-68157-5|page=23}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Laitin|first=David D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dHbrDvGQEbUC&pg=PA111|title=Hegemony and culture: politics and religious change among the Yoruba|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|year=1986|isbn=978-0-226-46790-0|page=111}}</ref> and 14th<ref>{{cite book|last1=MacDonald|first1=Fiona|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=joh5yHfcF-8C&pg=PA385|title=Peoples of Africa, Volume 1|last2=Paren|first2=Elizabeth|last3=Shillington|first3=Kevin|author3-link=Kevin Shillington|last4=Stacey|first4=Gillian|last5=Steele|first5=Philip|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|year=2000|isbn=978-0-7614-7158-5|page=385}}</ref> centuries, respectively. The oldest signs of [[human]] settlement at Ife's current site date back to the 9th century,<ref name="Falola13" /> and its material culture includes terracotta and bronze figures.

=== Pre-colonial era ===
{{Further|History of Nigeria (1500–1800)}}
[[File:Ancient_Benin_city.JPG|thumb|Depiction of [[Benin City]] by a Dutch illustrator in 1668. The wall-like structure in the centre probably represents the [[walls of Benin]], housing the [[Benin bronze]] decorated historic [[Royal Palace of the Oba of Benin|Benin City Palace]].]]

In the 16th century, [[Portuguese discoveries|Portuguese explorers]] were the first [[Ethnic groups in Europe|Europeans]] to begin important, direct trade with the peoples of southern Nigeria, at the port they named Lagos (formerly Eko) and in [[Calabar]] along the region [[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]]. Europeans traded goods with peoples at the coast; coastal trade with Europeans also marked the beginnings of the [[Atlantic slave trade]].<ref name="diverse-slavery">{{cite book|last=Gordon|first=April A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H26pO3vwmHoC&pg=PA54|title=Nigeria's Diverse Peoples: A Reference Sourcebook|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2003|isbn=978-1-57607-682-8|pages=44–54|access-date=29 March 2015}}</ref> The port of Calabar on the historical [[Bight of Biafra]] (now commonly referred to as the Bight of Bonny) became one of the largest slave-trading posts in West Africa in this era. Other major slaving ports were located in [[Badagry]], Lagos on the [[Bight of Benin]], and [[Bonny Island]] on the Bight of Biafra.<ref name="diverse-slavery" /><ref name="slave-trade">{{cite book|last1=Falola|first1=Toyin|url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000falo|title=Historical Dictionary of Nigeria|last2=Genova|first2=Ann|publisher=Scarecrow Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8108-6316-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000falo/page/n373 328]|access-date=29 March 2015|url-access=registration}}</ref> The majority of those taken to these ports were captured in raids and wars.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Falola|first1=Toyin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ANzFx1O95eAC&pg=PA78|title=Environment and Economics in Nigeria|last2=Paddock|first2=Adam|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-1-136-66247-8|page=78|access-date=29 March 2015}}</ref> Usually, the captives were taken back to the conquerors' territory as [[forced labour]]; they were sometimes gradually acculturated and absorbed into the conquerors' society. Slave routes were established throughout Nigeria linking the hinterland areas with the major coastal ports. Some of the more prolific slave-trading kingdoms who participated in the Atlantic slave trade were linked with the Edo's [[Kingdom of Benin|Benin Empire]] in the south, [[Oyo Empire]] in the southwest, and the [[Aro Confederacy]] in the southeast.<ref name="diverse-slavery" /><ref name="slave-trade" /> Benin's power lasted between the 15th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nigeria: A Country Study – The Slave Trade|url=http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/7.htm|last=Metz|first=Helen Chapin|author-link=Helen Chapin Metz|year=1991|publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]|access-date=28 May 2011|archive-date=23 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623172414/http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/7.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Oyo, at its territorial zenith in the late 17th to early 18th centuries, extended its influence from western Nigeria to modern-day [[Togo]].

In the north, the incessant fighting amongst the Hausa city-states and the decline of the [[Kanem–Bornu Empire|Bornu Empire]] allowed the Fulani people to gain headway into the region. Until this point, the Fulani, a [[nomad]]ic ethnic group, primarily traversed the semi-desert [[Sahel]]ian region north of Sudan with cattle and avoided trade and intermingling with the Sudanic peoples. At the beginning of the 19th century, [[Usman dan Fodio]] led [[Fulani War|a successful jihad]] against the [[Hausa Kingdoms]], founding the centralised [[Sokoto Caliphate]]. This empire, with Arabic as its official language, grew rapidly under his rule and that of [[List of Sultans of Sokoto|his descendants]], who sent out [[Fula jihads|invading armies]] in every direction. The vast landlocked empire connected the east with the western Sudan region and made inroads down south conquering parts of the Oyo Empire (modern-day [[Kwara State|Kwara]]), and advanced towards the [[Yorubaland|Yoruba heartland]] of [[Ibadan]], to reach the Atlantic Ocean. The territory controlled by the empire included much of modern-day northern and central Nigeria. The sultan sent out emirs to establish [[suzerainty]] over the conquered territories and promote Islamic civilization; the emirs in turn became increasingly rich and powerful through trade and slavery. By the 1890s, the largest [[Slavery in Africa|slave population]] in the world, about two million, was concentrated in the territories of the Sokoto [[Caliphate]]. The use of slave labour was extensive, especially in agriculture.<ref>Shillington, Kevin, ''[[Encyclopedia of African History]]''. (U of Michigan Press, 2005) p. 1401.</ref> By the time of its break-up in 1903 into various European colonies, the Sokoto Caliphate was one of the largest pre-colonial African states.<ref>Adam, Abba Idris, "Re-inventing Islamic Civilization in the Sudanic Belt: The Role of Sheikh Usman Dan Fodio." ''Journal of Modern Education Review'' 4.6 (2014): 457–465. [http://tweb.cjcu.edu.tw/journal_abstract/2014_10_02_12_32_45.99.pdf#page=63 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415060148/https://tweb.cjcu.edu.tw/journal_abstract/2014_10_02_12_32_45.99.pdf#page=63 |date=15 April 2021 }}</ref>

A changing legal imperative (the outlawing of the [[Atlantic slave trade]] in 1807) and economic imperative (a desire for political and social stability) led most European powers to support the widespread cultivation of agricultural products, such as the palm, for use in European industry. The slave trade continued after the ban, as illegal smugglers purchased slaves along the coast from native slavers. Britain's [[West Africa Squadron]] sought to intercept the smugglers at sea. The [[Saro people|rescued slaves]] were taken to [[Freetown]], a colony in West Africa originally established by [[John Clarkson (abolitionist)|Lieutenant John Clarkson]] for the resettlement of slaves freed by Britain in North America after the [[American Revolutionary War]].

=== British colonization ===
{{Main|Colonial Nigeria|Royal Niger Company}}

Britain intervened in the Lagos kingship power struggle by bombarding Lagos in 1851, deposing the slave-trade-friendly [[Kosoko|Oba Kosoko]], helping to install the amenable Oba [[Akitoye]] and signing the [[Treaty Between Great Britain and Lagos, 1 January 1852|Treaty between Great Britain and Lagos]] on 1{{nbsp}}January 1852. [[United Kingdom|Britain]] annexed Lagos as a [[crown colony]] in August 1861 with the [[Lagos Treaty of Cession]]. British missionaries expanded their operations and travelled further inland. In 1864, [[Samuel Ajayi Crowther]] became the first African [[Church of Nigeria|bishop of the Anglican Church]].<ref>[[Derek R. Peterson|Peterson, Derek R.]], ed., ''Abolitionism and imperialism in Britain, Africa, and the Atlantic'' (Ohio University Press, 2010).</ref>
[[File:Flag of Lagos Colony (1888–1906).svg|thumb|upright=0.6|Flag of the [[Lagos Colony]]]]
In 1885, British claims to a West African [[sphere of influence]] received recognition from other European nations at the [[Berlin Conference]]. The following year, it chartered the [[Royal Niger Company]] under the leadership of Sir [[George Taubman Goldie]]. By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the company had vastly succeeded in subjugating the independent southern kingdoms along the [[Niger River]], the British conquered [[Benin Empire|Benin]] in 1897, and, in the [[Anglo-Aro War]] (1901–1902), defeated other opponents. The defeat of these states opened up the Niger area to British rule. In 1900, the company's territory came under the direct control of the British government and established the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] as a British [[protectorate]] and part of the [[British Empire]].
[[File:Tcitp d012 frederick john dealtry lugard and wife.jpg|thumb|[[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|The Lord]] and [[Flora Shaw, Lady Lugard|Lady Lugard]], 1908|upright]]
By 1902, the British had begun plans to move north into the Sokoto Caliphate. British General Lord [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Frederick Lugard]] was tasked by the [[Colonial Office]] to implement the agenda. Lugard used rivalries between many of the emirs in the southern reach of the caliphate and the central Sokoto administration to prevent any defence as he worked towards the capital. As the British approached the city of [[Sokoto (city)|Sokoto]], Sultan [[Muhammadu Attahiru I]] organized a quick defence of the city and fought the advancing British-led forces. The British force quickly won, sending Attahiru I and thousands of followers on a [[Mahdi]]st ''[[Hegira|hijra]]''. In the northeast, the decline of the [[Kanem–Bornu Empire|Bornu Empire]] gave rise to the British-controlled [[Borno Emirate]] which established [[Abubakar Garbai of Borno]] as ruler.

[[File:Emir of Kano-1911.jpg|thumb|[[Muhammad Abbas (Emir of Kano)|Emir of Kano]] with cavalry, 1911]]In 1903, the British victory in the [[Battle of Kano (1903)|Battle of Kano]] gave them a logistical edge in [[Battle of Kwatarkwashi|pacifying the heartland of the Sokoto Caliphate]] and parts of the former Bornu Empire. On 13 March 1903, at the grand market square of Sokoto, the last [[Sokoto Grand Vizier|vizier of the caliphate]] officially conceded to British rule. The British appointed [[Muhammadu Attahiru II]] as the new caliph. Lugard abolished the caliphate but retained the title ''sultan'' as a symbolic position in the newly organized [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]]. This remnant became known as "[[Sokoto Sultanate Council]]". In June 1903, the British defeated the remaining northern forces of Attahiru. By 1906, all resistance to British rule had ended.

On 1 January 1914, the British formally united the [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] and the [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] into the [[Colonial Nigeria|Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria]]. Administratively, Nigeria remained divided into the Northern and Southern Protectorates and [[Lagos Colony]]. Inhabitants of the southern region sustained more interaction, economic and cultural, with the British and other Europeans owing to the coastal economy.<ref>Falola, Toyin, and Matthew M. Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (2008), pp. 85–109.</ref> Christian missions established Western educational institutions in the protectorates. Under Britain's policy of indirect rule and validation of Islamic legitimist tradition, the Crown did not encourage the operation of Christian missions in the northern, Islamic part of the country.<ref>{{cite web |title=Slow death slavery course abolition northern Nigeria 18971936 {{!}} Regional history after 1500 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/regional-history-after-1500/slow-death-slavery-course-abolition-northern-nigeria-18971936,%20https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/regional-history-after-1500 |access-date=22 January 2020 |website=Cambridge University Press |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308001224/https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/regional-history-after-1500/slow-death-slavery-course-abolition-northern-nigeria-18971936,%20https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/regional-history-after-1500 |url-status=live }}</ref>

By the mid-20th century following [[World War II]], a [[Decolonisation of Africa|wave for independence]] was sweeping across Africa, in response to the growth of Nigerian nationalism and demands for independence, successive constitutions legislated by the British government moved Nigeria toward self-government on a representative and increasingly federal basis. By the eve of independence in 1960, regional differences in modern educational access were marked. The legacy, though less pronounced, continues to the present day. The balance between north and south was also expressed in Nigeria's political life. For instance, northern Nigeria did not outlaw slavery until 1936 whilst in other parts of Nigeria, slavery was abolished soon after colonialism.<ref>{{cite web |title=The end of slavery |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1624_story_of_africa/page56.shtml |access-date=28 May 2011 |work=The Story of Africa |publisher=BBC News |archive-date=23 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200723083115/http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1624_story_of_africa/page56.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="slave-trade" />[[File:Stamp Cameroons 2d-600px.jpg|thumb|1953 postage stamp with portrait of Queen [[Elizabeth II]]]]
[[File:Nnamdi Azikiwe PC (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Nnamdi Azikiwe]], first President of Nigeria (1963–1966)|upright]]

=== Independence and the Federal Republic ===
{{Main|Federation of Nigeria|First Nigerian Republic|Independence Day (Nigeria)}}

Nigeria gained a degree of self-rule in 1954, and full independence from the United Kingdom on 1 October 1960, as the [[Federation of Nigeria]] with [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] as its [[Prime Minister of Nigeria|Prime Minister]], while retaining the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|British monarch]], [[Elizabeth II]], as nominal head of state and [[Queen of Nigeria]]. [[Nnamdi Azikiwe]] replaced the colonial [[governor-general]] in November 1960. At independence, the cultural and political differences were sharp among Nigeria's dominant ethnic groups: the [[Hausa people|Hausa]] in the north, Igbo in the east, and Yoruba in the west.<ref name="JBS2">{{cite journal |author=Udofia, O.E. |year=1981 |title=Nigerian Political Parties: Their Role in Modernizing the Political System, 1920–1966 |journal=Journal of Black Studies |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=435–447 |doi=10.1177/002193478101100404 |jstor=2784073 |s2cid=143073983}}</ref> The [[Westminster system]] of government was retained, and thus the [[President of Nigeria|President]]'s powers were generally ceremonial.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dawodu.com/const63.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818121408/https://www.dawodu.com/const63.pdf |archive-date=18 August 2021 |title=The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria |date=1963}}</ref> The parliamentary system of government had [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] as Prime Minister and Nnamdi Azikiwe as the ceremonial president. The founding government was a coalition of conservative parties: the [[Northern People's Congress]] led by Sir [[Ahmadu Bello]], a party dominated by Muslim northerners, and the Igbo and Christian-dominated [[National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons]] led by Nnamdi Azikiwe. The opposition consisted of the comparatively liberal [[Action Group (Nigeria)|Action Group]], which was largely dominated by the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] and led by [[Obafemi Awolowo]]. An imbalance was created in the polity as a result of the [[Southern Cameroons#Trust territory|1961 plebiscite]]. [[Southern Cameroons]] opted to join the [[Cameroon|Republic of Cameroon]] while [[British Cameroon|Northern Cameroons]] chose to join Nigeria. The northern part of the country became larger than the southern part.
[[File:Abubakar Tafawa Balewa (1962).jpg|alt=Abubakar Tafawa Balewa|thumb|221x221px|[[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]], Nigeria's first Prime Minister during the 1st Republic. ]]

=== Fall of the First Republic and Civil War ===
{{Main|1966 Nigerian coup d'état|1966 Nigerian counter-coup|Nigerian Civil War}}

The disequilibrium and perceived corruption of the electoral and political process led to two [[Coup d'état|military coups]] in 1966. The [[1966 Nigerian coup d'état|first coup was in January 1966]] and was led mostly by soldiers under Majors [[Emmanuel Ifeajuna]] (of the [[Igbo people|Igbo]] tribe), [[Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu]] ([[Northern Region, Nigeria|Northerner]] of [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern]] extraction) and [[Adewale Ademoyega]] (a Yoruba from the West). The coup plotters succeeded in assassinating Sir [[Ahmadu Bello]] and Sir [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] alongside prominent leaders of the Northern Region and Premier [[Ladoke Akintola|Samuel Akintola]] of the [[Western State (Nigeria)|Western Region]], but the plotters struggled to form a central government. Senate President [[Nwafor Orizu]] handed over government control to the [[Nigerian Army|Army]], under the command of another Igbo officer, Major General<ref>{{Cite news|last=Irede|first=Akin|title=Aguiyi-Ironsi: The murder that birthed Nigeria's northern hegemony|work=The Africa Report|date=17 March 2022|url=https://www.theafricareport.com/182958/aguiyi-ironsi-the-murder-that-birthed-nigerias-northern-hegemony/amp/|access-date=23 February 2023|archive-date=23 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223001544/https://www.theafricareport.com/182958/aguiyi-ironsi-the-murder-that-birthed-nigerias-northern-hegemony/amp/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi]]. Later, the counter-coup of 1966, supported primarily by Northern military officers, facilitated the rise of [[Yakubu Gowon]] as military head of state. Tension rose between north and south; [[1966 anti-Igbo pogrom|Igbos in northern cities suffered persecution]] and many fled to the [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]].<ref>Falola and Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (2008) pp 158–59.</ref>[[File:Biafra independent state map-en.svg|thumb|The [[Biafra|Republic of Biafra]] in June 1967, when it declared its independence from the rest of Nigeria]]

In May 1967, Governor of the [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern Region]] Lt. Colonel [[C. Odumegwu Ojukwu|Emeka Ojukwu]] declared the region independent from the federation as a state called the [[Biafra|Republic of Biafra]], as a result of the continuous and systematically planned attacks against Igbos and those of [[Eastern Region, Nigeria|Eastern]] extraction popularly known as 1966 [[1966 anti-Igbo pogrom|pogroms]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Murray|first=Senan|title=Reopening Nigeria's civil war wounds|work=BBC News|date=30 May 2007|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6657259.stm|access-date=28 May 2011|archive-date=5 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305112039/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6657259.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Daly|first=Samuel Fury Childs|title=A History of the Republic of Biafra|date=7 August 2020|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/9781108887748|isbn=978-1-108-88774-8|s2cid=225266768}}</ref> This declaration precipitated the [[Nigerian Civil War]], which began as the official Nigerian government side attacked Biafra on 6 July 1967, at Garkem. The 30-month war, with a long [[blockade of Biafra]] and its isolation from trade and international relief, ended in January 1970.<ref name="DDRS">''"Background Paper on Nigeria and Biafra, Declassified Documents Reference System''.</ref> Estimates of the [[List of wars by death toll|number of dead]] in the former Eastern Region during the 30-month civil war range from one to three million.<ref>{{cite web|last=Metz|first=Helen Chapin|title=Nigeria: A Country Study – Civil War|publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]|year=1991|url=http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/23.htm|access-date=28 May 2011|archive-date=5 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605003652/http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/23.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Britain and the Soviet Union were the main military backers of the Nigerian government, with Nigeria utilizing air support from Egyptian pilots provided by [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]],<ref>{{cite web|title=''The Biafra War and the Age of Pestilence''|url=http://www.litencyc.com/theliterarymagazine/biafra.php|access-date=28 July 2014|publisher=Litencyc.com|archive-date=20 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180820081648/https://www.litencyc.com/theliterarymagazine/biafra.php|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Michael I. Draper, ''Shadows: Airlift and Airwar in Biafra and Nigeria 1967–1970''.</ref> while France and Israel aided the Biafrans. The [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congolese]] government, under President [[Mobutu Sese Seko|Joseph-Désiré Mobutu]], took an early stand on the Biafran secession, voicing strong support for the Nigerian federal government<ref>McDonald, Gordon C., ''Area Handbook for the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Congo Kinshasa)'' (1971), p. 263</ref> and deploying thousands of troops to fight against the [[Separatist movements of Nigeria|secessionists]].<ref>Stearns, Jason K. ''[[Dancing in the Glory of Monsters: The Collapse of the Congo and the Great War of Africa]]'' (2011), p. 115</ref><ref>Wrong, Michela. ''In the Footsteps of Mr Kurtz: Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo'' (2000), p. 266</ref>

Following the war, Nigeria enjoyed an [[oil boom]] in the 1970s, during which the country joined [[OPEC]] and received huge oil revenues. Despite these revenues, the military government did little to improve the [[standard of living]], help small and medium businesses, or invest in infrastructure. As oil revenues fueled the rise of federal subsidies to states, the federal government became the centre of political struggle and the threshold of power in the country. As oil production and revenue rose, the Nigerian government became increasingly dependent on oil revenues and international commodity markets for budgetary and economic concerns.<ref>Watts, Michael (1987) ''State, Oil and Agriculture in Nigeria'', Institute of International Studies, University of California, {{ISBN|0-87725-166-5}}.</ref>
The [[1975 Nigerian coup d'état|coup in July 1975]], led by Generals [[Shehu Musa Yar'Adua]] and [[Joseph Nanven Garba|Joseph Garba]], ousted Gowon,{{sfnm|1a1=Iliffe|1y=2011|1pp=42–43|2a1=Derfler|2y=2011|2p=81}} who fled to Britain.{{sfn|Derfler|2011|p=82}} The coup plotters wanted to replace Gowon's autocratic rule with a triumvirate of three brigadier generals whose decisions could be vetoed by a [[Supreme Military Council of Nigeria (1966–1979)|Supreme Military Council]]. For this triumvirate, they convinced General [[Murtala Muhammed]] to become military head of state, with General [[Olusegun Obasanjo]] as his second-in-command, and General [[Theophilus Danjuma]] as the third.{{sfnm|1a1=Iliffe|1y=2011|1p=43|2a1=Derfler|2y=2011|2p=81}} Together, the triumvirate introduced austerity measures to stem inflation, established a Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau, replaced all military governors with new officers, and launched "Operation Deadwood" through which they fired 11,000 officials from the civil service.{{sfn|Iliffe|2011|p=44}}

Colonel [[Buka Suka Dimka]] launched a [[1976 Nigerian coup d'état attempt|February 1976 coup attempt]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Joliba |date=13 February 2015 |title=Failed Coup Attempt of 1976 |url=https://joliba-africa.com/2015/02/13/failed-coup-attempt-of-1976/ |access-date=27 June 2023 |website=Joliba |archive-date=27 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230627112021/https://joliba-africa.com/2015/02/13/failed-coup-attempt-of-1976/ |url-status=live }}</ref> during which General Murtala Muhammed was assassinated. Dimka lacked widespread support among the military, and his coup failed, forcing him to flee.{{sfn|Iliffe|2011|p=48}} After the coup attempt, General Olusegun Obasanjo was appointed military head of state.{{sfnm|1a1=Iliffe|1y=2011|1pp=48–49|2a1=Derfler|2y=2011|2p=85}} Obasanjo vowed to continue Murtala's policies.{{sfnm|1a1=Iliffe|1y=2011|1p=50|2a1=Derfler|2y=2011|2p=85}} Aware of the danger of alienating northern Nigerians, Obasanjo brought General Shehu Yar'Adua as his replacement and second-in-command as [[Vice President of Nigeria|Chief of Staff, Supreme Headquarters]] completing the military triumvirate, with Obasanjo as head of state and General Theophilus Danjuma as [[Chief of Army Staff (Nigeria)|Chief of Army Staff]], the three went on to re-establish control over the [[Nigerian military juntas of 1966–79 and 1983–99|military regime]] and organized the military's transfer of power programme: [[States of Nigeria|states creation]] and [[Boundary delimitation|national delimitation]], [[Local government areas of Nigeria|local government reforms]] and the [[Constitution of Nigeria#1979 constitution (Second Republic)|constitutional drafting committee]] for a new republic.<ref>African Concord (1990). The New Helmsmen. Concord Press, Ikeja, Lagos. 13 August 1990</ref>

=== Military dictatorship and Second Republic ===
{{main|Military dictatorship in Nigeria|Second Nigerian Republic}}

The military carefully planned the return to civilian rule putting in place measures to ensure that political parties had broader support than witnessed during the first republic. In 1979, five political parties competed in a series of elections in which Alhaji [[Shehu Shagari]] of the [[National Party of Nigeria]] (NPN) was elected president. All five parties won representation in the National Assembly. On 1 October 1979, Shehu Shagari was sworn in as the first [[President of Nigeria|President and Commander-in-Chief]] of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Obasanjo peacefully transferred power to Shagari, becoming the first head of state in Nigerian history to willingly step down.[[File:Shehu Shagari 1980-10-07.jpg|thumb|[[Shehu Shagari]] was the first elected [[President of Nigeria]] from 1979 to 1983.|upright]]The Shagari government became viewed as corrupt by virtually all sectors of Nigerian society. In 1983, the inspectors of the state-owned Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation began to notice "the slow poisoning of the waters of this country".<ref>David Williams, ''President and power in Nigeria: The life of Shehu Shagari'' (Routledge, 2018).</ref> In August 1983, Shagari and the NPN were returned to power in a landslide victory, with a majority of seats in the National Assembly and control of 12 state governments. But the elections were marred by violence, and allegations of widespread vote-rigging and electoral malfeasance led to legal battles over the results. There were also uncertainties, such as in the first republic, that political leaders may be unable to govern properly.

The [[1983 Nigerian coup d'état|1983 military coup d'état]] was coordinated by key officers of the Nigerian military and led to the overthrow of the government and the installation of Major General [[Muhammadu Buhari]] as head of state. The military coup of Muhammadu Buhari shortly after the regime's re-election in 1984 was generally viewed as a positive development.<ref>"Nigeria, Military Faces Daunting Challenges", AP Press International, 3{{nbsp}}March 1984. Retrieved 22 February 2007.</ref> In 1985, [[Ibrahim Babangida]] overthrew Buhari in a coup d'état. In 1986, Babangida established the [[Nigerian Political Bureau of 1986|Nigerian Political Bureau]] which made recommendations for the transition to the Third Nigerian Republic. In 1989, Babangida started making plans for the transition to the Third Nigerian Republic. Babangida survived the [[1990 Nigerian coup d'état attempt]], then postponed a promised return to democracy to 1992.<ref>{{Citation |last=Siollun |first=Max |title=Civil Military Affairs and Military Culture in Post-Transition Nigeria |date=25 October 2018 |work=The Oxford Handbook of Nigerian Politics |pages=272–287 |editor1-last=Levan |editor1-first=Carl |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198804307.013.13 |isbn=978-0-19-880430-7 |editor2-last=Ukata |editor2-first=Patrick}}</ref>

==== 12 June and the crisis of the Third Republic ====
[[File:Abdulsalami Abubakar detail DF-SC-02-04323.jpg|thumb|left|[[Abdulsalami Abubakar]], military ruler in 1998 saw the return to democracy in 1999|upright]]
{{Main|Third Nigerian Republic|1993 Nigerian presidential election}}

Babangida legalized the formation of political parties and formed the two-party system with the [[Social Democratic Party (Nigeria)|Social Democratic Party]] and [[National Republican Convention]] ahead of the [[1992 Nigerian parliamentary election|1992 general elections]]. He urged all Nigerians to join either of the parties, which Chief [[Bola Ige]] referred to as "two leper hands". The [[1993 Nigerian presidential election|1993 presidential election]] held on 12 June was the first since the military coup of 1983. The results, though not officially declared by the National Electoral Commission, showed the duo of [[Moshood Abiola]] and [[Baba Gana Kingibe]] of the Social Democratic Party defeated [[Bashir Tofa]] and [[Sylvester Ugoh]] of the National Republican Convention by over 2.3&nbsp;million votes. However, Babangida annulled the elections, leading to massive civilian protests that effectively shut down the country for weeks. In August 1993, Babangida finally kept his promise to relinquish power to a civilian government but not before appointing [[Ernest Shonekan]] head of an [[Cabinet of Ernest Shonekan|interim national government]].<ref>Bilski, Andrew, "Broken Promises", ''Maclean'', 6 September 1993.</ref> Babangida's regime has been considered the most corrupt and responsible for creating a culture of corruption in Nigeria.<ref>Diamond, Larry; [[Kirk-Greene, Anthony]]; [[Oyeleye Oyediran]] (1997) ''Transition without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society Under Babangida'', Vantage Publishers, {{ISBN|978-2458-54-6}}.</ref>

Shonekan's interim government, the shortest in the political history of the country, was overthrown in a [[1993 Nigerian coup d'état|coup d'état of 1993]] led by General [[Sani Abacha]], who used military force on a wide scale to suppress the continuing civilian unrest. In 1995, the government hanged environmentalist Ken Saro-Wiwa on trumped-up charges in the deaths of four [[Ogoni people|Ogoni]] elders, which caused Nigerian's [[Suspension from the Commonwealth of Nations|suspension from the Commonwealth]]. Lawsuits under the American [[Alien Tort Statute]] against [[Royal Dutch Shell]] and Brian Anderson, the head of Shell's Nigerian operation, settled out of court with Shell continuing to deny liability.<ref>{{cite web|title=Wiwa et al v. Royal Dutch Petroleum et al.|url=http://wiwavshell.org/|work=Center for Constitutional Rights|access-date=24 August 2016|archive-date=26 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326065947/http://wiwavshell.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> Several hundred million dollars in accounts traced to Abacha were discovered in 1999.<ref>''"Nigerian Lawyer: Abacha accounts apparently in Switzerland, Luxembourg, France, and Germany", AP press, 10 January 2000.''</ref> The regime came to an end in 1998 when the dictator died in the villa. He looted money to offshore accounts in Western European banks and defeated coup plots by arresting and bribing generals and politicians. His successor, General [[Abdulsalami Abubakar]], adopted a new constitution on 5 May 1999, which provided for multiparty elections.

=== Return to democracy (1999–present) ===
{{Main|Fourth Nigerian Republic}}
[[File:Olusegun Obasanjo DD-SC-07-14396-cropped.jpg|thumb|left|[[Olusegun Obasanjo]] served as president of Nigeria from 1999 to 2007.|upright]]
On 29 May 1999, Abubakar handed over power to the winner of the 1999 presidential election, former military ruler General [[Olusegun Obasanjo]], as President of Nigeria. Obasanjo had been in prison under the dictatorship of Abacha. Obasanjo's inauguration heralded the beginning of the Fourth Nigerian Republic,<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/2391/Abdusalam-Abubakar "Abdusalam Abubakar"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504215600/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/2391/Abdusalam-Abubakar |date=4 May 2015 }}, Encyclopædia Britannica Online, accessed 26 October 2012.</ref> ending a 39-year period of short-lived democracies, civil war and military dictatorship. Although the elections that brought Obasanjo to power and allowed him to run for a second term in the 2003 presidential elections were condemned as unfree and unfair, Nigeria made significant progress in democratization under Obasanjo.<ref>Falola and Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (2008) pp. 211–34.</ref>

In the 2007 general elections, [[Umaru Musa Yar'Adua|Umaru Yar'Adua]] of the People's Democratic Party came to power. The international community, which had observed the Nigerian elections to promote a free and fair process, condemned these elections as seriously flawed.<ref>{{cite web|title=Final Report|url=http://www.eueom-ng.org/Files/final_report.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216032839/http://www.eueom-ng.org/Files/final_report.pdf|archive-date=16 February 2008|access-date=24 January 2008|publisher=EU Election Observation Mission Nigeria 2007}}</ref> Yar'Adua died on 5 May 2010, and Vice President [[Goodluck Jonathan]] had been sworn in by the Senate three months earlier as acting president to succeed Yar'Adua.<ref>{{cite web|date=18 May 2010|title=NASS confirms Sambo as vice president|url=https://www.thenigerianvoice.com/movie/24352/nass-confirm-sambo-as-vice-president.html|access-date=29 May 2011|work=[[The Nigerian Voice]]|archive-date=5 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805081015/https://www.thenigerianvoice.com/movie/24352/nass-confirm-sambo-as-vice-president.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Akinlade|first=Muruf|date=18 May 2010|title=National Assembly confirms Sambo as Vice President|url=http://www.myondostate.com/myondostate/newssend.php?id=203|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427025349/http://www.myondostate.com/myondostate/newssend.php?id=203|archive-date=27 April 2011|access-date=29 May 2011|publisher=MyOndoState.Com}}</ref> Jonathan won the 2011 presidential election; the polls went smoothly and with relatively little violence or electoral fraud.<ref name="New York2">{{cite news|last=Nossiter|first=Adam|date=16 April 2011|title=Nigerians Vote in Presidential Election|newspaper=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/17/world/africa/17nigeria.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1&hp|access-date=17 April 2011|archive-date=24 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824165122/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/17/world/africa/17nigeria.html?pagewanted=1|url-status=live}}</ref> Jonathan's tenure saw an economic recovery that made Nigeria the leading economic power in Africa.<ref>{{cite web |last=Times |first=Premium |date=23 December 2014 |title=Nigerian economy among world's largest – Jonathan |url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/173732-nigerian-economy-among-worlds-largest-jonathan.html |access-date=5 October 2022 |website=Premium Times Nigeria |language=en-GB |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004085504/https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/173732-nigerian-economy-among-worlds-largest-jonathan.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=eribake |first=akintayo |date=24 December 2014 |title=Nigeria's economy among largest in the world — Jonathan |url=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2014/12/nigerias-economy-among-largest-world-jonathan/ |access-date=5 October 2022 |website=Vanguard News |language=en-GB |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004085507/https://www.vanguardngr.com/2014/12/nigerias-economy-among-largest-world-jonathan/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Jonathan administration also saw an increase in unparalleled corruption, with as many as 20 billion US dollars said to have been lost to the Nigerian state through the national oil company. Above all, however, Jonathan's tenure saw the emergence of a wave of terror by the [[Boko Haram insurgency]], such as the [[Gwoza massacre]] and [[Chibok schoolgirls kidnapping]] in 2014.<ref>{{cite web |last=Udo |first=Bassey |date=14 May 2015 |title=Missing $20 bn: Sanusi faults Alison-Madueke, says audit report proves at least $18.5bn lost |url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/182926-missing-20-bn-sanusi-faults-alison-madueke-says-audit-report-proves-at-least-18-5bn-lost.html |access-date=5 October 2022 |website=Premium Times Nigeria |language=en-GB |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004085505/https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/182926-missing-20-bn-sanusi-faults-alison-madueke-says-audit-report-proves-at-least-18-5bn-lost.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Bola Tinubu portrait.jpg|thumb|Chief [[Bola Tinubu]] is currently serving as President of Nigeria since 29 May 2023.|upright]]
Ahead of the [[2015 Nigerian general election|general election of 2015]], a merger of the biggest opposition parties in Nigeria – the [[Action Congress of Nigeria]], the [[Congress for Progressive Change]], the [[All Nigeria Peoples Party]], a faction of the [[All Progressives Grand Alliance]] and the new PDP (a faction of serving governors of the ruling People's Democratic Party) – formed the [[All Progressives Congress]] led by current president Bola Ahmed Tinubu. At the time, it was the most expensive election ever to be held on the African continent (being surpassed only by the elections of [[2019 Nigerian general election|2019]] and [[2023 Nigerian presidential election|2023]]). The new mega-opposition party chose as their candidate for the election former military dictator Muhammadu Buhari. Buhari's campaign in 2015 was popular and built around his image as a staunch anti-corruption fighter—he won the election by over two million votes. Observers generally praised the election as being fair.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nigeria election: Muhammadu Buhari wins|newspaper=BBC|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-32139858|access-date=31 March 2015|archive-date=25 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125205929/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-32139858|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=1 April 2015|title=Obama praises Nigeria's president for conceding defeat|url=http://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/04/obama-praises-nigerias-president-for-conceding-defeat/|access-date=4 April 2015|publisher=Vanguard|archive-date=21 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190821192325/https://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/04/obama-praises-nigerias-president-for-conceding-defeat/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|title=APC praises Jonathan for conceding defeat|url=http://thenationonlineng.net/new/apc-praises-jonathan-for-conceding-defeat/|magazine=The Nation|access-date=4 April 2015|archive-date=8 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150708183124/http://thenationonlineng.net/new/apc-praises-jonathan-for-conceding-defeat/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=31 March 2015|title=Anyaoku Praises Jonathan For Conceding Defeat|url=http://www.channelstv.com/2015/03/31/anyaoku-praises-jonathan-for-conceding-defeat/|access-date=4 April 2015|publisher=Channels Television|archive-date=21 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190821192329/https://www.channelstv.com/2015/03/31/anyaoku-praises-jonathan-for-conceding-defeat/|url-status=live}}</ref> The election marked the first time an incumbent president had lost re-election in Nigeria. In the [[2019 Nigerian general election|2019 presidential election]], Buhari was re-elected.<ref>{{cite web|last=AfricaNews|date=27 February 2019|title=Buhari beats Atiku to secure re-election as Nigeria president|url=https://www.africanews.com/2019/02/27/buhari-beats-atiku-to-secure-re-election-as-nigeria-president/|access-date=5 July 2020|website=Africanews|archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924063323/https://www.africanews.com/2019/02/27/buhari-beats-atiku-to-secure-re-election-as-nigeria-president/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Four major candidates, amongst other less popular candidates, vied for the presidency in the [[2023 Nigerian presidential election|2023 presidential election]]. For the first time since the return of democracy, no former military ruler ran for president, marking a strengthening of democracy and faith in the [[Constitution of Nigeria|multiparty constitution]]. The election also saw the rise of metonymic supporters of the new candidates, the [[Obidient Movement|Obidient movement]] of [[Peter Obi]], previously governor of Anambra State, widely appealed to young, urban voters and has his core base in the Southeast;<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lasisi |first=Olukayode Joshua |date=29 September 2022 |title=Peter Obi leads in new poll, Google search interest |url=https://businessday.ng/politics/article/peter-obi-leads-in-new-poll-google-search-interest/ |access-date=5 October 2022 |website=Businessday NG |language=en-US |archive-date=2 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202040603/https://businessday.ng/politics/article/peter-obi-leads-in-new-poll-google-search-interest/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and the Kwankwassiya of [[Rabiu Kwankwaso]], former governor of [[Kano State]] in the Northwest.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Olurounbi |first1=Eromo Egbejule,Ruth |title=How Rabiu Kwankwaso became wildcard in Nigerian presidential race |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2023/2/1/kwankwaso-went-from-unpopular-governor-to-nigerian-presidential-wildcard |work=aljazeera.com |language=en |access-date=24 August 2023 |archive-date=24 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230924073749/https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2023/2/1/kwankwaso-went-from-unpopular-governor-to-nigerian-presidential-wildcard |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Bola Tinubu]], of the ruling party, won the disputed election with 36.61% of the vote,<ref>{{cite news |title=Nigeria presidential election results 2023 by the numbers |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/2/28/nigeria-presidential-election-results-2023 |work=aljazeera.com |language=en |access-date=18 August 2023 |archive-date=9 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230809010308/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/2/28/nigeria-presidential-election-results-2023 |url-status=live }}</ref> but both runners-up claimed victory and litigation is ongoing in an election tribunal.<ref>{{cite news |title=Nigeria local elections open in shadow of contested national vote |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/18/nigeria-local-elections-open-in-shadow-of-contested-vote |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en |access-date=18 August 2023 |archive-date=18 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230818143649/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/18/nigeria-local-elections-open-in-shadow-of-contested-vote |url-status=live }}</ref> Bola Tinubu's [[Inauguration of Bola Tinubu|inauguration]] was held on 29 May 2023.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bola Tinubu sworn in as Nigeria's president, succeeds Buhari |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/5/29/tinubu-sworn-in-as-nigerias-president-succeeds-buhari |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en |access-date=18 August 2023 |archive-date=6 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906193842/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/5/29/tinubu-sworn-in-as-nigerias-president-succeeds-buhari |url-status=live }}</ref> Problems with widespread [[kidnapping in Nigeria]] continued.<ref>{{cite news |author=Emmanuel Akinwotu |date=16 January 2024 |title=A kidnapping of six sisters and a murder has gripped Nigeria |url=https://devone.com.ng/2024/01/shocking-kidnapping-and-murder-of-six-sisters-grips-nigeria.html |work=DevOne Africa |publisher=[[NPR]] |access-date=19 February 2024 |archive-date=19 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240219180223/https://devone.com.ng/2024/01/shocking-kidnapping-and-murder-of-six-sisters-grips-nigeria.html |url-status=live }}</ref> On 29 May 2024, Tinubu signed into law an act readopting ''[[Nigeria, We Hail Thee]]'', which was the country's [[national anthem]] from 1960 to 1978, as its national anthem, replacing ''[[Arise, O Compatriots]]''.