Editing Niger (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of Niger}}

=== Prehistory ===
[[File:1997 278-10 Sahara glyph.jpg|thumb|Rock engraving showing herds of giraffe, [[ibex]], and other animals in the southern Sahara near [[Tiguidit]], Niger]]
Stone tools, some dating as far back as 280,000 BC, have been found in [[Adrar Bous]], [[Bilma]] and [[Djado]] in the northern [[Agadez Region]].<ref name="Bradt">Geels, Jolijn, (2006) ''Bradt Travel Guide – Niger'', pgs. 15–22</ref> Some of these finds have been linked with the [[Aterian]] and [[Mousterian]] tool cultures of the [[Middle Paleolithic]] period, which flourished in northern Africa circa 90,000 BC–20,000 BC.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = On the industrial attributions of the Aterian and Mousterian of the Maghreb|journal = Journal of Human Evolution|date = 1 March 2013|pages = 194–210|volume = 64|issue = 3|doi = 10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.10.010|first1 = Harold L.|last1 = Dibble|first2 = Vera|last2 = Aldeias|first3 = Zenobia|last3 = Jacobs|first4 = Deborah I.|last4 = Olszewski|first5 = Zeljko|last5 = Rezek|first6 = Sam C.|last6 = Lin|first7 = Esteban|last7 = Alvarez-Fernández|first8 = Carolyn C.|last8 = Barshay-Szmidt|first9 = Emily|last9 = Hallett-Desguez|pmid=23399349| bibcode=2013JHumE..64..194D }}</ref><ref name="Bradt"/> It is thought that these humans lived a hunter-gatherer lifestyle.<ref name="Bradt"/> During the prehistoric [[African humid period]], the climate of the [[Sahara]] was wetter and more fertile, a phenomenon archaeologists refer to as the "Green Sahara", which provided "favourable" conditions for hunting and later agriculture and livestock herding.<ref>Gwin, Peter. [http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/09/green-sahara/gwin-text/1 "Lost Tribes of the Green Sahara"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100903071614/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/09/green-sahara/gwin-text/1 |date=3 September 2010 }}, ''National Geographic'', September 2008.</ref><ref>[[Roland Oliver|Oliver, Roland]] (1999), ''The African Experience: From Olduvai Gorge to the 21st Century'' (Series: History of Civilization), London: [[Weidenfeld & Nicolson|Phoenix Press]], revised edition, pg 39.</ref>

The [[Neolithic]] era, beginning circa 10,000 BC, saw a number of changes such as the introduction of [[pottery]] (as evidenced at Tagalagal, Temet and Tin Ouffadene), the spread of cattle husbandry, and the burying of the dead in stone [[tumuli]].<ref name="Bradt"/> As the climate changed in the period 4000–2800 BC the Sahara gradually began [[desertification|drying out]], forcing a change in settlement patterns to the south and east.<ref name="larousse-history">{{in lang|fr}} [http://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/pays/Niger/135284 Niger] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702234937/http://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/pays/Niger/135284 |date=2 July 2014 }}. ''Encyclopédie Larousse''</ref> Agriculture spread, including the planting of [[millet]] and [[sorghum]], and pottery production.<ref name="Bradt"/> Iron and copper items appear in this era, with finds including those at [[Azawagh]], [[Takedda]], [[Marendet]] and the [[Termit Massif]].<ref>Duncan E. Miller and N.J. Van Der Merwe, 'Early Metal Working in Sub Saharan Africa' Journal of African History 35 (1994) 1–36; Minze Stuiver and N.J. Van Der Merwe, 'Radiocarbon Chronology of the Iron Age in Sub-Saharan Africa' Current Anthropology 1968.</ref><ref>{{citation | last=Grébénart | first=Danilo | year=1993 | url=http://siris-libraries.si.edu/ipac20/ipac.jsp?uri=full=3100001~!752653!0#focus | title=Azelik Takedda et le cuivre médiéval dans la région d'Agadez | journal=Le Saharien (Paris) | volume=125 | issue=2 | pages=28–33 | access-date=12 November 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180724093526/https://siris-libraries.si.edu/ipac20/ipac.jsp?uri=full=3100001~!752653!0#focus | archive-date=24 July 2018 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=3432&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html Iron in Africa: Revisiting the History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081025192915/http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D3432%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html |date=25 October 2008 }} – Unesco (2002)</ref> The [[Kiffian culture|Kiffian]] (circa 8000–6000 BC) and later [[Tenerian culture|Tenerian]] (circa 5000–2500 BC) cultures, centred on [[Adrar Bous]] and [[Gobero]] where skeletons have been uncovered, flourished during this period.<ref name="auto">[https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=5593387 Ancient cemetery found in 'green' Sahara Desert] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811115708/https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=5593387 |date=11 August 2014 }}. By Randolph E. Schmid. Associated Press /ABC News.</ref><ref name="Clark & DGG">{{cite book|last1=Clark|first1=J. Desmond|last2=Gifford-Gonzalez|first2=Diane|title=Adrar Bous: archaeology of a central Saharan granitic ring complex in Niger|date=2008|publisher=Royal Museum of Central Africa, Tervuren}}</ref><ref name="scidaily">{{cite web|url = https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/08/080815101317.htm|title = Stone Age Graveyard Reveals Lifestyles Of A 'Green Sahara'|publisher = Science Daily|date = 15 August 2008|access-date = 15 August 2008|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080816060031/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/08/080815101317.htm|archive-date = 16 August 2008|url-status = live}}</ref><ref name="nytimes">{{cite news|url = https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/15/science/15sahara.html|title = Graves Found From Sahara's Green Period|first = John Noble|last = Wilford |work = [[The New York Times]]|date = 14 August 2008|access-date = 15 August 2008|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120123154828/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/15/science/15sahara.html|archive-date = 23 January 2012|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Sereno PC, ((Garcea EAA)), Jousse H, Stojanowski CM, ((Saliège J-F)), Maga A|title=Lakeside Cemeteries in the Sahara: 5000 Years of Holocene Population and Environmental Change|journal=PLOS ONE|date=2008|volume=3|issue=8|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0002995|display-authors=etal|pmid=18701936|pmc=2515196|pages=e2995|bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.2995S|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Societies continued to grow with regional differentiation in agricultural and funerary practices. A culture of this period is the [[Bura culture]] (circa 200–1300 AD) named for the [[Bura archaeological site]] where a burial replete with iron and ceramic statuettes were discovered.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5045/|title=Site archéologique de Bura|first=UNESCO World Heritage|last=Centre|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=7 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210180203/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5045/|archive-date=10 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The Neolithic era saw the flourishing of Saharan rock art, including in the [[Aïr Mountains]], Termit Massif, Djado Plateau, Iwelene, Arakao, Tamakon, Tzerzait, [[Iferouane]], Mammanet and [[Dabous Giraffes|Dabous]]; the art spans the period from 10,000 BC to 100 AD and depicts a range of subjects, from the varied fauna of the landscape to depictions of spear-carrying figures dubbed 'Libyan warriors'.<ref>{{citation|url=https://africanrockart.britishmuseum.org/country/niger/|publisher=British Museum|title=African Rock Art – Niger|access-date=11 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702080140/https://africanrockart.britishmuseum.org/country/niger/|archive-date=2 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{citation|url=https://www.icomos.org/studies/rockart-sahara-northafrica/07sous-zone3.pdf|publisher=ICOMOS|author=Caulson, David|title=Sub-Zone 3: Niger|access-date=11 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181212111121/https://www.icomos.org/studies/rockart-sahara-northafrica/07sous-zone3.pdf|archive-date=12 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Shillington">Shillington, Kevin (1989, 1995). ''History of Africa, Second Edition''. St. Martin's Press, New York. Page 32.</ref>

=== Empires and kingdoms in pre-colonial Niger ===
By at least the 5th century BC the territory of what is now Niger had become an area of trans-Saharan trade. Led by [[Tuareg]] tribes from the north, camels were used as a means of transportation through what is later a desert.<ref>Lewicki, T. (1994). "The Role of the Sahara and Saharians in Relationships between North and South". In ''UNESCO General History of Africa: Volume 3.'' University of California Press, {{ISBN|92-3-601709-6}}.</ref><ref name=Masonen>
Masonen, P: "[http://www.hf-fak.uib.no/institutter/smi/paj/Masonen.html Trans-Saharan Trade and the West African Discovery of the Mediterranean World.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061008085939/http://www.hf-fak.uib.no/institutter/smi/paj/Masonen.html |date=8 October 2006 }}"
</ref> This mobility which would continue in waves for centuries was accompanied with further migration to the south and intermixing between sub-Saharan African and North African populations, and the spread of [[Islam]].<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> It was aided by the [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb]] in the 7th century, the result of three Arab invasions, which resulted in population movements to the south.<ref name="larousse-history"/> Empires and kingdoms existed in the Sahel during this era. The following adopts a roughly chronological account of some empires.

==== Mali Empire (1200s–1400s) ====
{{Main|Mali Empire}}
The Mali Empire was a [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]] empire founded by [[Sundiata Keita]] (r. 1230–1255) in {{circa|1230}} and existed until the 1600s. As detailed in the ''[[Epic of Sundiata]]'', Mali emerged as a breakaway region of the [[Sosso Empire]] which itself had split from the earlier [[Ghana Empire]]. Thereafter Mali defeated the Sosso at the [[Battle of Kirina]] in 1235 and then Ghana in 1240.<ref name="oxfordre1">{{cite book|url = https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-266|author = Sirio Canós-Donnay|title = Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|chapter = The Empire of Mali| publisher = Oxford Research Encyclopedias|date = February 2019|doi = 10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.266|isbn = 978-0-19-027773-4|access-date = 13 November 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190730024800/https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-266| archive-date = 30 July 2019| url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.worldhistory.org/Mali_Empire/|title = Mali Empire|publisher = Ancient Origins|date = 1 March 2019|access-date = 13 November 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190729130448/https://www.worldhistory.org/Mali_Empire/|archive-date = 29 July 2019|url-status = live}}</ref> From its heartland around the later Guinea-Mali border region, the empire expanded under successive kings and came to dominate the Trans-Saharan trade routes, reaching its greatest extent during the rule of [[Mansa Musa]] (r. 1312–1337).{{citation needed|date=September 2021}} At this point parts of what are now Niger's [[Tillabéri Region]] fell under Malian rule.<ref name="oxfordre1"/> A Muslim, Mansa Musa performed the ''[[hajj]]'' in 1324–25 and encouraged the spread of [[Islam]] in the empire, and it "appears that most ordinary citizens continued to maintain their traditional animist beliefs instead of or alongside the new religion".<ref name="oxfordre1"/><ref name="ancient1">{{cite web|url = https://www.worldhistory.org/Mali_Empire/|title = Mali Empire|publisher = World History Encyclopedia|access-date = 13 November 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190729130448/https://www.worldhistory.org/Mali_Empire/|archive-date = 29 July 2019|url-status = live}}</ref> The empire began "declining" in the 15th century due to a combination of internecine strife over the royal succession, weak kings, the shift of European trade routes to the coast, and rebellions in the empire's periphery by [[Mossi people|Mossi]], [[Wolof people|Wolof]], [[Tuareg]] and [[Songhai people|Songhai]] peoples.<ref name="ancient1"/> A rump Mali kingdom continued to exist until the 1600s.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}

==== Songhai Empire (1000s–1591) ====
[[File:SONGHAI empire map.PNG|thumb|left|Map of the Songhai Empire, overlaid over modern boundaries]]
{{Main|Songhai Empire}}
The [[Songhai Empire]] was named for its main ethnic group, the [[Songhai people|Songhai or Sonrai]], and was centred on the bend of the [[Niger River]] in [[Mali]]. Songhai began settling this region from the 7th to 9th centuries;{{citation needed|date=September 2021}} by the 11th century [[Gao]] (capital of the former [[Kingdom of Gao]]) had become the empire's capital.<ref name="boubou-hama">Boubou Hama and M Guilhem, "L’histoire du Niger, de l’Afrique et du Monde"; Edicef, ''Les royaumes Haoussa'', pp. 104–112</ref><ref name=countrystudy>{{cite book|editor1-last=Metz|editor1-first=Helen Chapin|editor1-link=Helen Chapin Metz |title=Nigeria: A Country Study|date=1991|publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress|location=Washington, DC|url=http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/9.htm|access-date=14 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103012936/http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/9.htm|archive-date=3 November 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> From 1000 to 1325, the Songhai Empire managed to maintain peace with the Mali Empire, its neighbour to the west. In 1325 Songhai was conquered by Mali until regaining its independence in 1375.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}} Under king [[Sonni Ali]] (r. 1464–1492) Songhai adopted an expansionist policy which reached its apogee during the reign of [[Askia Mohammad I]] (r. 1493–1528); at this point the empire had expanded from its Niger-bend heartland, including to the east where most of later western Niger fell under its rule, including [[Agadez]] which was conquered in 1496.<ref name="Bradt"/><ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.worldhistory.org/Songhai_Empire/|title = Songhai Empire|publisher = World History Encyclopedia|access-date = 13 November 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190729123752/https://www.worldhistory.org/Songhai_Empire/|archive-date = 29 July 2019|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>[http://www.africankingdoms.com African Kingdoms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190519102901/http://www.africankingdoms.com/|date=19 May 2019}} African kingdoms – The Songhai Empire</ref> The empire was unable to withstand repeated attacks from the [[Saadi dynasty]] of [[Morocco]] and was decisively defeated at the [[Battle of Tondibi]] in 1591; it then collapsed into a number of smaller kingdoms.<ref name=countrystudy/>

==== Sultanate of Aïr (1400s–1906) ====
[[File:1997 277-9A Agadez mosque cropped.jpg|thumb|right|[[Agadez Mosque|The Grand Mosque of Agadez]]]]
{{Main|Sultanate of Aïr}}
In {{circa|1449}} in the north of what is now Niger, the [[Sultanate of Aïr]] was founded by Sultan Ilisawan, based in [[Agadez]].<ref name="Bradt"/> Formerly a trading post inhabited by a mixture of Hausa and Tuaregs, it grew as a strategic position on the Trans-Saharan trade routes. In 1515, Aïr was conquered by Songhai, remaining a part of that empire until its collapse in 1591.<ref name="Bradt"/><ref name="H-Dictionary"/> In the following centuries, it "seems that the sultanate entered a decline" marked by internecine wars and clan conflicts.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> When Europeans began exploring the region in the 19th century, most of Agadez lay in ruins and was taken over by the French (''see below'').<ref name="Bradt"/><ref name="H-Dictionary"/>

==== Kanem–Bornu Empire (700s–1700s) ====
{{Main|Kanem–Bornu Empire|Sultanate of Damagaram}}
To the east, the [[Kanem–Bornu Empire]] dominated the region around [[Lake Chad]] for a period.<ref name=countrystudy/> It was founded by the [[Zaghawa people|Zaghawa]] around the 8th century and based in [[Njimi]], north-east of the lake. The kingdom gradually expanded, including during the rule of the [[Sayfawa dynasty]] which began in {{circa|1075}} under ''Mai'' (king) [[Hummay]].<ref name="ancient2">{{cite web| url = https://www.worldhistory.org/Kingdom_of_Kanem/| title = Kingdom of Kanem| publisher = World History Encyclopedia| author = Cartwright, Mark| date = 23 April 2019| access-date = 13 November 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190508165923/https://www.worldhistory.org/Kingdom_of_Kanem/| archive-date = 8 May 2019| url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Ryder|first=A.F.C.|title=General History of Africa: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century|year=1981|publisher=UNESCO|location=Paris|page=239|editor=D.T. Niane}}</ref> The kingdom reached its greatest extent in the 1200s, partly due to the effort of ''Mai'' [[Dunama Dibbalemi]] (r. 1210–1259), and grew "richer" from its control of some Trans-Saharan trade routes; most of eastern and south-eastern Niger, including [[Bilma]] and [[Kaouar]], was under Kanem's control in this period.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ryder|first=A.F.C.|title=General History of Africa: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century|year=1981|publisher=UNESCO|location=Paris|pages=251–52|editor=D.T. Niane}}</ref> Islam had been introduced to the kingdom by Arab traders from the 11th century, gaining more converts over the following centuries.<ref name="ancient2"/> Attacks by the [[Bulala]] people in the 14th century forced Kanem to shift westwards of Lake Chad where it became known as the Bornu Empire ruled from its capital [[Ngazargamu]] on what is later the [[Niger-Nigeria border]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Ryder|first=A.F.C.|title=General History of Africa: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century|year=1981|publisher=UNESCO|location=Paris|pages=258–65|editor=D.T. Niane}}</ref><ref name="ancient2"/><ref>{{cite book|title=The History of Islam in Africa|author-link=Nehemia Levtzion|author1=Nehemia Levtzion|author2=Randall Pouwels|publisher=Ohio University Press|page=81}}</ref> Bornu "prospered" during the rule of ''Mai'' [[Idris Alooma]] (r. circa 1575–1610) and re-conquered most of the "traditional lands" of Kanem, hence the designation 'Kanem–Bornu' for the empire. By the 17th century and into the 18th the Bornu kingdom had entered a "period of decline", shrinking back to its Lake Chad heartland.<ref name=countrystudy/><ref name="ancient2"/>

Circa 1730–40 a group of [[Kanuri people|Kanuri]] settlers led by Mallam Yunus left Kanem and founded the [[Sultanate of Damagaram]], centred on the town of [[Zinder]].<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> The sultanate remained nominally subject to the [[Borno Empire]] until the reign of Sultan Tanimoune Dan Souleymane in the 19th century, who declared independence and initiated a phase of expansion.<ref name="Bradt"/> The sultanate managed to resist the advance of the Sokoto Caliphate (''see below''), and was later captured by the French in 1899.<ref name="Bradt"/>

==== The Hausa states and other smaller kingdoms (1400s–1800s) ====
[[File:Photo1906 Zinder overview.jpg|thumb|Overlooking the town of [[Zinder]] and the Sultan's Palace from the French fort (1906). The arrival of the French spelled an end for precolonial states like the [[Sultanate of Damagaram]] which carried on only as ceremonial "chiefs" appointed by the colonial government.]]
{{Main|Hausa Kingdoms|Dosso Kingdom|Dendi Kingdom}}
Between the Niger River and Lake Chad lay [[Hausa Kingdoms]], encompassing the cultural-linguistic area known as [[Hausaland]] which straddles what later became the [[Niger-Nigeria border]].<ref name="ancient3">{{cite web| url = https://www.worldhistory.org/Hausaland/| title = Hausaland| publisher = World History Encyclopedia| author = Cartwright, Mark| date = 9 May 2019| access-date = 13 November 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191226173321/https://www.worldhistory.org/Hausaland/| archive-date = 26 December 2019| url-status = live}}</ref> The Hausa are thought to be a mixture of autochthonous peoples and migrant peoples from the north and east, emerging as a distinct people sometime in the 900s–1400s when the kingdoms were founded.<ref name="ancient3"/><ref name="Bradt"/><ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web| url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/4chapter5.shtml| title = Hausa States| publisher = BBC| access-date = 13 November 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180915100345/http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/4chapter5.shtml| archive-date = 15 September 2018| url-status = live}}</ref> They gradually adopted Islam from the 14th century, and sometimes this existed alongside other religions, developing into syncretic forms; some Hausa groups such as the Azna resisted Islam altogether (the area of [[Dogondoutchi]] remains an animist stronghold).<ref name="Bradt"/><ref name=countrystudy/> The Hausa kingdoms were not a compact entity but several federations of kingdoms more or less independent of one other. Their organisation was hierarchical and somewhat democratic: the Hausa kings were elected by the notables of the country and could be removed by them.<ref name="boubou-hama"/> The Hausa Kingdoms began as seven states founded, according to the [[Bayajidda]] legend, by the six sons of Bawo.<ref name="ancient3"/><ref name=countrystudy/> Bawo was the only son of the Hausa queen [[Daurama]] and [[Bayajidda]] or ([[Abu Yazid]] according to certain historians) who came from [[Baghdad]]. The seven original Hausa states (also referred to as the 'Hausa bakwai') were: [[Daura Emirate|Daura]] (state of queen [[Daurama]]), [[Sultanate of Kano|Kano]], [[Rano]], [[Zazzau|Zaria]], [[Gobir]], [[Katsina (city)|Katsina]] and [[Hadejia|Biram]].<ref name="boubou-hama"/><ref name="Bradt"/><ref name="autogenerated1"/> An extension of the legend states that Bawo had a further seven sons with a concubine, who went on to found the so-called 'Banza (''illegitimate'') Bakwai': [[Zamfara]], [[Kebbi Emirate|Kebbi]], [[Nupe Kingdom|Nupe]], [[Gwari]], [[Yauri Emirate|Yauri]], [[Ilorin Emirate|Ilorin]] and [[Kwararafa]].<ref name="autogenerated1"/> A smaller state not fitting into this scheme was [[Konni (Hausa state)|Konni]], centred on [[Birni-N'Konni]].<ref name="H-Dictionary"/>
[[File:Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913.png|thumb|250px|Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913]]
The [[Fulani]] (also called Peul, Fulbe etc.), a pastoral people found throughout the Sahel, began migrating to Hausaland during the 1200s–1500s.<ref name=countrystudy/><ref name="ancient3"/> During the later 18th century some Fulani were unhappy with the syncretic form of Islam practised there; exploiting also the populace's disdain with corruption amongst the Hausa elite, the Fulani scholar [[Usman Dan Fodio]] (from Gobir) declared a [[Fulani jihad|jihad]] in 1804.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/><ref name="Bradt"/><ref name=fisher1975>H. J. Fisher. The Sahara and Central Sudan. in The Cambridge History of Africa: From C 1600 to C 179. Richard Gray, J. D. Fage, Roland Anthony Oliver, eds. Cambridge University Press, (1975) {{ISBN|0-521-20413-5}} pp. 134–6</ref> After conquering most of Hausaland (though not the Bornu Kingdom, which remained independent), he proclaimed the [[Sokoto Caliphate]] in 1809.<ref name="ancient3"/> Some of the Hausa states survived by fleeing south, such as the Katsina who moved to [[Maradi, Niger|Maradi]] in the south of what later became Niger.<ref name=countrystudy/> Some of these surviving states harassed the Caliphate and a period of wars and skirmishes commenced, with some states (such as Katsina and Gobir) maintaining independence whereas elsewhere newer ones were formed (such as the [[Sultanate of Tessaoua]]). The Caliphate managed to survive until, "fatally weakened" by the invasions of Chad-based warlord [[Rabih az-Zubayr]], it finally fell to the British in 1903, with its lands later being partitioned between Britain and France.<ref name=Falola-2>{{cite book|last=Falola|first=Toyin|title=Colonialism and Violence in Nigeria|year=2009|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Bloomington, IN}}</ref>

Other smaller kingdoms of the period include the [[Dosso Kingdom]], a [[Zarma people|Zarma]] polity founded in 1750, which resisted the rule of Hausa and Sokoto states.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/>

=== Colonial (1900–1958) ===
[[File:French West Africa - DPLA - 53944da3422ceec80ca02617ad7fb2e0.jpg|thumb|[[French West Africa]] in 1949]]
{{Main|Senegambia and Niger|Upper Senegal and Niger|French West Africa|Colony of Niger}}
In the 19th century, some European explorers travelled in the area that would become known as Niger, such as [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]] (in 1805–1806), the [[Walter Oudney|Oudney]]-[[Dixon Denham|Denham]]-[[Hugh Clapperton|Clapperton]] expedition (1822–25), [[Heinrich Barth]] (1850–55 with [[James Richardson (explorer)|James Richardson]] and [[Adolf Overweg]]), [[Friedrich Gerhard Rohlfs]] (1865–1867), [[Gustav Nachtigal]] (1869–1874) and [[Parfait-Louis Monteil]] (1890–1892).<ref name="Bradt"/>

Some European countries already possessed coastal colonies in Africa, and in the latter half of the century they began to turn their eyes towards the interior of the continent. This process, known as the '[[Scramble for Africa]]', culminated in the [[Berlin Conference|1885 Berlin conference]] in which the colonial powers outlined the division of Africa into spheres of influence. As a result of this, [[France]] gained control of the upper valley of the [[Niger River]] (roughly equivalent to the present territory of [[Mali]] and Niger).<ref name="IBS093">{{citation|url=https://fall.fsulawrc.com/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS093.pdf|title=International Boundary Study No. 93 – Niger-Nigeria Boundary|date=15 December 1969|access-date=6 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001160001/https://fall.fsulawrc.com/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS093.pdf|archive-date=1 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> France then set about making a reality of their rule on the ground. In 1897, the French officer [[Marius Gabriel Cazemajou]] was sent to Niger. He reached the [[Sultanate of Damagaram]] in 1898, and stayed in [[Zinder]] at the court of Sultan Amadou Kouran Daga. He was later killed, as Daga feared he would ally with the Chad-based warlord Rabih az-Zubayr.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> In 1899–1900, France coordinated three expeditions—the [[Émile Gentil|Gentil Mission]] from [[French Congo]], the [[Amédée-François Lamy|Foureau-Lamy Mission]] from [[Algeria]] and the [[Voulet–Chanoine Mission]] from [[Timbuktu]]—with the aim of linking France's African possessions.<ref name="IBS093"/> The three eventually met at [[Kousséri]] (in the far north of [[Cameroon]]) and defeated Rabih az-Zubayr's forces at the [[Battle of Kousséri]]. The Voulet-Chanoine Mission was "marred by atrocities", and "became notorious" for pillaging, looting, raping and killing local civilians on its passage throughout southern Niger.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/><ref name="Bradt"/> On 8 May 1899, in retaliation for the resistance of queen [[Sarraounia]], captain Voulet and his men murdered all the inhabitants of the village of [[Birni-N'Konni]] in what is regarded as "one of the worst massacres in French colonial history".<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> The "brutal" methods of Voulet and Chanoine caused a "scandal" and Paris was forced to intervene; when Lieutenant-Colonel [[Jean-François Klobb]] caught up with the mission near [[Tessaoua]] to relieve them of command he was killed. Lt. [[Paul Joalland]], Klobb's former officer, and Lt. [[Octave Meynier]] eventually took over the mission following a mutiny in which Voulet and Chanoine were killed.<ref name="Bradt"/>
The Military Territory of Niger was subsequently created within the [[Upper Senegal and Niger]] colony (later Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger) in December 1904 with its capital at [[Niamey]].<ref name="Bradt"/> The [[Niger-Nigeria border|border]] with Britain's colony of Nigeria to the south was finalised in 1910, a rough delimitation having already been agreed by the two powers via treaties during the period 1898–1906.<ref name="IBS093"/> The capital of the territory was moved to Zinder in 1912 when the Niger Military Territory was split off from Upper Senegal and Niger, before being moved back to Niamey in 1922 when Niger became a fully fledged colony within [[French West Africa]].<ref name="Bradt"/><ref name="H-Dictionary"/> The borders of Niger were drawn up in stages and had been fixed at their later position by the 1930s. Territorial adjustments took place in this period: the areas west of the Niger river were [[Burkina Faso–Niger border|attached]] to Niger in 1926–1927, and during the dissolution of Upper Volta (modern Burkina Faso) in 1932–1947 most of the east of that territory was added to Niger;<ref name="IBS146">{{citation|url=https://fall.fsulawrc.com/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS146.pdf|title=International Boundary Study No. 146 – Burkina Faso-Niger Boundary|date=18 November 1974|access-date=5 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001160026/https://fall.fsulawrc.com/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS146.pdf|archive-date=1 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="H-Dictionary"/> and in the east the [[Tibesti Mountains]] were [[Chad-Niger border|transferred]] to Chad in 1931.<ref name="IBS73">{{citation|url=https://fall.fsulawrc.com/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS073.pdf|title=International Boundary Study No. 73 – Chad-Niger Boundary|date=1 August 1966|access-date=5 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001160014/https://fall.fsulawrc.com/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS073.pdf|archive-date=1 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

The French generally adopted a form of indirect rule, allowing existing native structures to continue to exist within the colonial framework of governance providing that they acknowledged French supremacy.<ref name="Bradt"/> The Zarma of the Dosso Kingdom in particular proved amenable to French rule, using them as allies against the encroachments of Hausa and other nearby states; over time the Zarma thus became one of the "more educated and westernised" groups in Niger.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> Perceived threats to French rule, such as the Kobkitanda rebellion in [[Dosso Region]] (1905–1906), led by the blind cleric Alfa Saibou, and the Karma revolt in the Niger valley (December 1905 – March 1906) led by Oumarou Karma were suppressed with force, as were the latter [[Hamallayya]] and [[Hauka]] religious movements.<ref name="Bradt"/><ref name="H-Dictionary">{{cite book |author1=Decalo, Samuel |author2=Idrissa, Abdourahmane |title=Historical Dictionary of Niger |date=1 June 2012 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=9780810870901 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GFFjEMjKrWkC&pg=PA286 |access-date=25 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725153320/https://books.google.co.nz/books?id=GFFjEMjKrWkC&pg=PA286&lpg=PA286 |archive-date=25 July 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>''UNESCO General History of Africa'', Vol. VIII: Africa Since 1935. Ali A. Mazrui, Christophe Wondji, Unesco International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa, eds. University of California Press, (1999) {{ISBN|0-520-06703-7}} pp. 70–3</ref> While "largely successful" in subduing the "sedentary" populations of the south, the French faced "considerably more difficulty" with the Tuareg in the north (centered on the Sultanate of Aïr in Agadez), and France was unable to occupy Agadez until 1906.<ref name="Bradt"/> Tuareg resistance continued, culminating in the [[Kaocen revolt]] of 1916–1917, led by [[Ag Mohammed Wau Teguidda Kaocen]], with backing from the [[Senussi]] in [[Fezzan]]; the revolt was violently suppressed and Kaocen fled to Fezzan where he was later killed.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> A puppet sultan was set up by the French and the "decline and marginalisation" of the north of the colony continued, exacerbated by a series of droughts.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> While it remained "something of a backwater", some limited economic development took place in Niger during the colonial years, such as the introduction of [[Hausa groundnut|groundnut]] cultivation.<ref name="Bradt"/> Measures to improve food security following a series of devastating famines in 1913, 1920, and 1931 were introduced.<ref name="Bradt"/><ref name="H-Dictionary"/>

During the [[Second World War]], during which time mainland France was occupied by [[Nazi Germany]], [[Charles de Gaulle]] issued the Brazzaville Declaration, declaring that the French colonial empire would be replaced post-war with a less centralised [[French Union]].<ref>Joseph R. De Benoist, "The Brazzaville Conference, or Involuntary Decolonization." ''Africana Journal'' 15 (1990) pp: 39–58.</ref> The French Union, which lasted from 1946 to 1958, conferred a limited form of French citizenship on the inhabitants of the colonies, with some decentralisation of power and limited participation in political life for local advisory assemblies. It was during this period that the [[Nigerien Progressive Party – African Democratic Rally|Nigerien Progressive Party]] (''Parti Progressiste Nigérien'', or PPN, originally a branch of the African Democratic Rally, or ''[[Rassemblement Démocratique Africain]]'' – RDA) was formed under the leadership of former teacher [[Hamani Diori]], as was the left-wing [[Mouvement Socialiste Africain-Sawaba]] (MSA), led by [[Djibo Bakary]]. Following the Overseas Reform Act (''Loi Cadre'') of 23 July 1956 and the establishment of the [[Fifth French Republic]] on 4 December 1958, Niger became an autonomous state within the [[French Community]]. On 18 December 1958, an autonomous Republic of Niger was officially created under the leadership of Hamani Diori. MSA was banned in 1959 for its perceived excessive anti-French stance.<ref name=djibo03>Mamoudou Djibo. Les enjeux politiques dans la colonie du Niger (1944–1960). Autrepart no 27 (2003), pp. 41–60.</ref> On 11 July 1960, Niger decided to leave the French Community and acquired full independence at midnight, local time, on 3 August 1960;<ref>Keesing's Contemporary Archives, page 17569.</ref> Diori thus became the first [[List of Presidents of Niger|president]] of the country.

=== Post-colonial (1960–) ===
==== Diori years (1960–1974) ====
[[File:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F028554-0009, Niger, Staatsbesuch Bundespräsident Lübke.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|200px|right|President [[Hamani Diori]] and visiting [[German President]] [[Heinrich Lübke]] greet crowds on a state visit to Niamey, 1969. Diori's single party rule was characterised by "good" relations with the West and a preoccupation with foreign affairs.]]
For its first 14 years as an independent state, Niger was run by a single-party civilian regime under the presidency of Hamani Diori.<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hamani-Diori|title=Encyclopedia Britannica – Hamni Diori|access-date=19 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903003241/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hamani-Diori|archive-date=3 September 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The 1960s saw an expansion of the education system and some limited economic development and industrialisation.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> Links with France remained, with Diori allowing the development of French-led [[uranium]] mining in [[Arlit]] and supporting France in the [[Algerian War]].<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> Relations with other African states were mostly "positive", with the exception of [[Dahomey]] (Benin), owing to a [[Benin-Niger border|border]] dispute. Niger remained a one-party state throughout this period, with Diori surviving a planned coup in 1963 and an assassination attempt in 1965; most of this activity was masterminded by Djibo Bakary's MSA-Sawaba group which had launched an abortive rebellion in 1964.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/><ref>{{cite book |author=Jon Abbink |author2=Mirjam de Bruijn, Klaas van Walraven |title=Rethinking Resistance: revolt and violence in African history |year=2003 |url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/9606/ASC_1267345_058.pdf?sequence=1 |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |isbn=90-04-12624-4 |chapter=''Sawaba's Rebellion in Niger (1964-64)'' |access-date=21 November 2019 |archive-date=5 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805010044/https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/9606/ASC_1267345_058.pdf?sequence=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the 1970s, a combination of economic difficulties, [[drought]]s and accusations of rampant corruption and mismanagement of food supplies resulted in a [[1974 Nigerien coup d'état|coup d'état]] that overthrew the Diori regime.

==== First military regime (1974–1991) ====
The coup had been masterminded by Col. [[Seyni Kountché]] and a military group under the name of the ''Conseil Militaire Supreme'', with Kountché going on to rule the country until his death in 1987.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> The first action of the military government was to address the food crisis.<ref>{{in lang|fr}} [http://perspective.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/servlet/BMEve?codeEve=574 Renversement du président Hamani Diori au Niger] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141022153822/http://perspective.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/servlet/BMEve?codeEve=574 |date=22 October 2014 }}. ''Perspective monde'', 15 avril 1974</ref> Whilst political prisoners of the Diori regime were released after the coup, political and individual freedoms in general deteriorated during this period. There were attempted coups (in 1975, 1976 and 1984) which were thwarted, their instigators being punished.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/>

[[File:Seyni Kountche 1983.jpg|thumb|200px|President [[Seyni Kountché]] during the state visit of West German President [[Karl Carstens]] to Niger in 1983]]
Kountché sought to create a 'development society', funded mostly by the uranium mines in [[Agadez Region]].<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> [[Parastatal]] companies were created, infrastructure (building and new roads, schools, health centres) constructed, and there was corruption in government agencies, which Kountché did not hesitate to punish.<ref>[https://nigerdiaspora.net/index.php/societe/2547-niamey-une-forte-tendance-a-la-depravation-des-moeurs Kountché: 30 ans après son coup d'état] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727084909/https://nigerdiaspora.net/index.php/societe/2547-niamey-une-forte-tendance-a-la-depravation-des-moeurs |date=27 July 2018 }}. ''Nigerdiaspora'', 10 novembre 2007 (republished on 6 November 2017).</ref> In the 1980s, Kountché began cautiously loosening the grip of the military, with some relaxation of state censorship and attempts made to 'civilianise' the regime.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> The economic boom ended following the collapse in uranium prices, and [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]]-led austerity and privatisation measures provoked opposition by some Nigeriens.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> In 1985, a Tuareg revolt in [[Tchintabaraden]] was suppressed.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> Kountché died in November 1987 from a brain tumour, and was succeeded by his chief of staff, Col. [[Ali Saibou]] who was confirmed as Chief of the Supreme Military Council four days later.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/>

Saibou curtailed the most repressive aspects of the Kountché era (such as the secret police and media censorship), and set about introducing a process of political reform under the overall direction of a single party (the ''Mouvement National pour la Société du Développement'', or MNSD).<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> A Second Republic was declared and a new constitution was drawn up, which was adopted following a [[1989 Nigerien constitutional referendum|referendum]] in 1989.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> General Saibou became the first president of the Second Republic after winning the [[1989 Nigerien general election|presidential election]] on 10 December 1989.<ref name="auto1">Nohlen, D, Krennerich, M & Thibaut, B (1999) ''Elections in Africa: A data handbook'', p685 {{ISBN|0-19-829645-2}}</ref>

President Saibou's efforts to control political reforms failed in the face of trade union and student demands to institute a [[multi-party democracy|multi-party democratic system]]. On 9 February 1990, a violently repressed student march in Niamey led to the death of three students, which led to increased national and international pressure for further democratic reform.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> The Saibou regime acquiesced to these demands by the end of 1990.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> Meanwhile, trouble re-emerged in Agadez Region when a group of armed Tuaregs attacked the town of Tchintabaraden (seen by some as the start of the first [[Tuareg rebellion (1990–1995)|Tuareg Rebellion]]), prompting a military crackdown which led to deaths (the precise numbers are disputed, with estimates ranging from 70 to up to 1,000).<ref name="H-Dictionary"/>

[[File:Ali Saibou cropped.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Ali Saibou]], President 1987–93, helped oversee the transition from military to civilian rule.]]

==== National Conference and Third Republic (1991–1996) ====
The National Sovereign Conference of 1991 brought about multi-party democracy. From 29 July to 3 November, a national conference gathered together all elements of society to make recommendations for the future direction of the country. The conference was presided over by Prof. [[André Salifou]] and developed a plan for a [[transitional government]]; this was then installed in November 1991 to manage the affairs of state until the institutions of the Third Republic were put into place in April 1993. After the National Sovereign Conference, the transitional government drafted a constitution that eliminated the previous single-party system of the 1989 Constitution and guaranteed more freedoms. The new constitution was adopted by a [[1992 Nigerien constitutional referendum|referendum]] on 26 December 1992.<ref>Walter S. Clarke, "The National Conference Phenomenon and the Management of Political Conflict in Sub-Saharan Africa," in ''Ethnic Conflict and Democratization in Africa'', ed. Harvey Glickman. Atlanta: African Studies Assoc. Press, (1995) {{ISBN|0-918456-74-6}}</ref> Following this, presidential [[1993 Nigerien parliamentary election|elections]] were held and [[Mahamane Ousmane]] became the first president of the Third Republic on 27 March 1993.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/><ref name="auto1"/> Ousmane's presidency saw four government changes and legislative [[1995 Nigerien parliamentary election|elections]] in 1995, and an economic slump.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/>

The violence in Agadez Region continued during this period, prompting the Nigerien government to sign a truce with Tuareg rebels in 1992 which was ineffective owing to internal dissension within the Tuareg ranks.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> Another rebellion, led by dissatisfied [[Toubou]] peoples claiming that, like the Tuareg, the Nigerien government had neglected their region, broke out in the east of the country.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> In April 1995 a peace deal with a Tuareg rebel group was signed, with the government agreeing to absorb some former rebels into the military and, with French assistance, help others return to a productive civilian life.<ref>{{cite book|title=Niger Foreign Policy and Government Guide |date=2007 |publisher=Int'l Business Publications |isbn=9781433036873 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gwInUH18i8wC&q=The+niger+agreed+to+absorb+some+of+the+former+rebels+into+the+military+and%2C+with+French+assistance%2C+to+help+others+return+to+a+productive+civilian+life.&pg=PA28 |language=en}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

==== Second and third military regimes (1996–1999) ====
The governmental paralysis prompted the military to intervene; on 27 January 1996, Col. [[Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara]] led a [[1996 Nigerien coup d'état|coup]] that deposed President Ousmane and ended the Third Republic.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1996/01/28/world/world-news-briefs-niger-s-elected-president-ousted-in-military-coup.html?pagewanted=1 Niger's Elected President Ousted in Military Coup] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803195752/https://www.nytimes.com/1996/01/28/world/world-news-briefs-niger-s-elected-president-ousted-in-military-coup.html?pagewanted=1 |date=3 August 2018 }} New York Times, 28 January 1996</ref><ref name=Obit>Kaye Whiteman, [https://web.archive.org/web/20150924095159/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_19990412/ai_n14221141 "Obituary: Ibrahim Bare Mainassara"], ''The Independent'' (London), 12 April 1999.</ref> Maïnassara headed a ''Conseil de Salut National'' (National Salvation Council) composed of military officials which carried out a six-month transition period, during which a constitution was drafted and adopted on 12 May 1996.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/>

Presidential campaigns were organised in the months that followed. Maïnassara entered the campaign as an independent candidate and won the [[1996 Nigerien parliamentary election|election]] on 8 July 1996, the elections were viewed nationally and internationally by some as irregular, as the electoral commission was replaced during the campaign.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> Meanwhile, Maïnassara instigated an [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] and [[World Bank]]-approved privatisation programme which enriched some of his supporters and were opposed by the trade unions.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> Following fraudulent local elections in 1999 the opposition ceased any cooperation with the Maïnassara regime.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> In unknown circumstances (possibly attempting to flee the country), Maïnassara was assassinated at [[Niamey Airport]] on 9 April 1999.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/358644/Ibrahim-Bare-Mainassara|title=Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=9 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330145938/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/358644/Ibrahim-Bare-Mainassara|archive-date=30 March 2012|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=1999: President of Niger 'killed in ambush'|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/9/newsid_2463000/2463927.stm|access-date=9 April 2014|newspaper=BBC|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150415001633/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/9/newsid_2463000/2463927.stm|archive-date=15 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

Maj. [[Daouda Malam Wanké]] then took over, establishing a transitional National Reconciliation Council to oversee the drafting of a constitution with a French-style [[semi-presidential system]]. This was adopted on 9 August 1999 and was followed by presidential and legislative [[1999 Nigerien general election|elections]] in October and November of the same year.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/315663.stm Niger: A copybook coup d'etat] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202132822/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/315663.stm |date=2 February 2020 }}, 9 April 1999, BBC. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/316037.stm Military controls Niger] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202133756/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/316037.stm |date=2 February 2020 }}, 10 April 1999, BBC.</ref> The elections were generally found to be free and fair by international observers. Wanké then withdrew from governmental affairs.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/>

==== Fifth Republic (1999–2009) ====
[[File:Nigerien MNJ fighter technical gun.JPG|thumb|A [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] rebel fighter in northern Niger during the Second Tuareg Rebellion, 2008]]
After winning the election in November 1999, President [[Tandja Mamadou]] was sworn into office on 22 December 1999 as the first president of the Fifth Republic. Mamadou brought about administrative and economic reforms that had been halted due to the military coups since the Third Republic, and helped peacefully resolve a decades-long boundary dispute with Benin.<ref>{{citation|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2005/07/144962-un-world-court-decides-niger-benin-border-dispute|publisher=UN News|title=UN World Court decides Niger, Benin border dispute|date=13 July 2019|access-date=8 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108193311/https://news.un.org/en/story/2005/07/144962-un-world-court-decides-niger-benin-border-dispute|archive-date=8 November 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Fabio Spadi (2005) [http://www.ljil.leidenuniv.nl/index.php3?m=5&c=186 The ICJ Judgment in the Benin-Niger Border Dispute: the interplay of titles and 'effectivités' under the uti possidetis juris principle, ''Leiden Journal of International Law''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060929032048/http://www.ljil.leidenuniv.nl/index.php3?m=5&c=186 |date=29 September 2006 }} 18: 777–794</ref> In August 2002, unrest within military camps occurred in [[Niamey]], [[Diffa]], and [[Nguigmi]], and the government was able to restore order within days. On 24 July 2004, municipal elections were held to elect local representatives, previously appointed by the government. These elections were followed by presidential elections, in which Mamadou was re-elected for a second term, thus becoming the first president of the republic to win consecutive elections without being deposed by military coups.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/><ref>[http://democratie.francophonie.org/IMG/pdf/NIGER_RMO1611_04122004.pdf "RAPPORT DE LA MISSION D’OBSERVATION DES ELECTIONS PRESIDENTIELLES ET LEGISLATIVES DES 16 NOVEMBRE ET 4 DECEMBRE 2004"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070622081649/http://democratie.francophonie.org/IMG/pdf/NIGER_RMO1611_04122004.pdf |date=22 June 2007 }}, democratie.francophonie.org {{in lang|fr}}.</ref> The legislative and executive configuration remained somewhat similar to that of the first term of the president: [[Hama Amadou]] was reappointed as prime minister and [[Mahamane Ousmane]], the head of the CDS party, was re-elected as the president of the National Assembly (parliament) by his peers.

By 2007, the relationship between President Tandja Mamadou and his prime minister had "deteriorated", leading to the replacement of the latter in June 2007 by [[Seyni Oumarou]] following a successful vote of no confidence at the Assembly.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> President Tandja Mamadou sought to extend his presidency by modifying the constitution which limited presidential terms. Proponents of the extended presidency, who rallied behind the 'Tazartche' (Hausa for 'overstay') movement, were countered by opponents ('anti-Tazartche') composed of opposition party militants and civil society activists.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/>

The north saw the outbreak of a [[Second Tuareg Rebellion]] in 2007 led by the ''[[Niger Movement for Justice|Mouvement des Nigériens pour la justice]]'' (MNJ). With a number of kidnappings the rebellion had "largely fizzled out inconclusively" by 2009.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> The "poor" security situation in the region is thought to have allowed elements of [[Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb]] (AQIM) to gain a foothold in the country.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/>

==== Sixth republic and fourth military regime (2009–2010) ====
In 2009, President Tandja Mamadou decided to organize a constitutional referendum seeking to [[2009–2010 Nigerien constitutional crisis|extend his presidency]], which was opposed by other political parties, and went against the decision of the Constitutional Court which had ruled that the referendum would be unconstitutional. Mamadou then modified and adopted a new constitution by referendum, which was declared illegal by the Constitutional Court, prompting Mamadou to dissolve the Court and assume emergency powers.<ref name=Reutersjune26>[https://www.reuters.com/article/marketsNews/idUSLQ2439220090626 Niger president rules by decree after court snub] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629050556/http://www.reuters.com/article/marketsNews/idUSLQ2439220090626 |date=29 June 2009 }}. Reuters. Fri 26 June 2009</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8121974.stm Emergency powers for Niger leader] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116071655/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8121974.stm |date=16 November 2018 }}. BBC. 26 June 2009.</ref> The opposition boycotted the referendum and the constitution was adopted with 92.5% of voters and a 68% turnout, according to official results. The adoption of the constitution created a Sixth Republic, with a [[presidential system]], the suspension of the 1999 Constitution, and a three-year interim government with Tandja Mamadou as president. The events generated political and social unrest.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/>

In a [[2010 Nigerien coup d'état|coup d'état]] in February 2010, a military junta led by [[Salou Djibo]] was established in response to Tandja's attempted extension of his political term.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8523196.stm "Military coup ousts Niger president Mamadou Tandja"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100219053310/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8523196.stm |date=19 February 2010 }}, [[British Broadcasting Corporation]], 19 February 2010</ref> The [[Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy]], headed by Djibo, carried out a one-year transition plan, drafted a constitution and held elections in 2011.

==== Seventh Republic (2010–2023) ====
[[File:Niger, Barkiawal Béri (04), vue aérienne avec RN25.jpg|thumb|Semi-arid Niger is threatened by further [[Desertification in Africa|desertification]].]]
Following the adoption of a constitution in 2010 and [[2011 Nigerien general election|presidential elections]] a year later, [[Mahamadou Issoufou]] was elected as the first president of the Seventh Republic; he was then [[2016 Nigerien general election|re-elected]] in 2016.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/><ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-niger-election-idUSKCN0WO0ZN "Boycott helps Niger President Issoufou win re-election"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304072455/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-niger-election-idUSKCN0WO0ZN |date=4 March 2020 }}, Reuters, 22 March 2016.</ref> The constitution restored the semi-presidential system which had been abolished a year earlier. An attempted coup against him in 2011 was thwarted and its ringleaders arrested.<ref name=FITWreport>{{cite web|title=Freedom in the World 2012: Niger|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2012/niger|publisher=Freedom House|access-date=8 April 2013|year=2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025073132/http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2012/niger|archive-date=25 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> Issoufou's time in office was marked by threats to the country's security, stemming from the fallout from the [[Libyan Civil War]] and [[Northern Mali conflict]], [[jihadist insurgency in Niger|an insurgency in western Niger]] by [[al-Qaeda]] and [[Islamic State]], the spillover of Nigeria's [[Boko Haram insurgency]] into south-eastern Niger, and the use of Niger as a transit country for migrants (often organised by [[people-smuggling]] [[gang]]s).<ref>{{citation|url= https://www.voanews.com/a/africa_unhcr-attacks-nw-nigeria-send-thousands-fleeing-niger/6176607.html|publisher= News 24|title= UNHCR: Attacks in NW Nigeria Send Thousands Fleeing to Niger|date= 27 September 2019|access-date= 8 November 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191108190356/https://www.voanews.com/africa/unhcr-attacks-nw-nigeria-send-thousands-fleeing-niger|archive-date= 8 November 2019|url-status= live}}</ref> French and American forces assisted Niger in countering these threats.<ref>{{cite web|title=France ready to strike extremists on Libya border|url=http://asian-defence-news.blogspot.fr/2015/01/france-ready-to-strike-extremists-on.html|website=Asian Defense News|date=6 January 2015|publisher=6 January 2015|access-date=6 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304031907/http://asian-defence-news.blogspot.fr/2015/01/france-ready-to-strike-extremists-on.html|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> 

On 10 December 2019, a large group of fighters belonging to the [[Islamic State in the Greater Sahara]] (IS-GS) [[Battle of Inates|attacked]] a military post in [[Inates]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Behind the Jihadist Attack in Inates |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/niger/behind-jihadist-attack-inates |work=[[ReliefWeb]] |date=13 December 2019}}</ref> killing over seventy [[Niger Armed Forces|soldiers]] and kidnapping others.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.france24.com/en/20191211-niger-soldiers-killed-attack-sahel-military-camp-issoufou-keita-macron-france-tuareg-islamic-state-al-qaeda-dead|title=At least 70 soldiers killed in attack on Niger military camp|date=2019-12-11|website=France 24|language=en|access-date=2019-12-12}}</ref> The attack was the deadliest single incident Niger's military has ever experienced.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/12/scores-soldiers-killed-niger-base-attack-191211184533878.html|title=Scores of soldiers killed in Niger base attack|date=11 December 2019|work=Al Jazeera|access-date=15 December 2019}}</ref> On 9 January 2020, a large group of IS-GS militants [[Battle of Chinagodrar|assaulted]] a Nigerien military base at Chinagodrar, in Niger's [[Tillabéri Region]], killing at least 89 Nigerien soldiers.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Aksar |first1=Moussa |last2=Lewis |first2=David |last3=Balima |first3=Boureima |last4=Ross |first4=Aaron |date=2020-01-11 |title=Niger army base attack death toll rises to at least 89: security sources |language=en |work=Reuters |editor-last=Elgood |editor-first=Giles |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-niger-security-idUSKBN1ZA0TH |access-date=2023-07-09}}</ref>

On 27 December 2020, Nigeriens [[2020–21 Nigerien general election|went to the polls]] after Issoufou announced he would step down, paving the way to a [[peaceful transition of power]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=AfricaNews|date=2021-01-07|title=Nigerien President Mahamadou Issoufou set to exit power|url=https://www.africanews.com/2021/01/07/nigerien-president-mahamadou-issoufou-set-to-exit-power/|access-date=2021-02-05|website=Africanews|language=en|archive-date=4 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204003650/https://www.africanews.com/2021/01/07/nigerien-president-mahamadou-issoufou-set-to-exit-power//|url-status=live}}</ref> No candidate won an absolute majority in the vote: [[Mohamed Bazoum]] came closest with 39.33%. Per the constitution, a run-off election was held on 20 February 2021, with Bazoum taking 55.75% of the vote and opposition candidate (and former president) [[Mahamane Ousmane]] taking 44.25%, according to the electoral commission.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-02-23|title=Niger election: Mohamed Bazoum wins landmark vote amid protests|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-56175439|access-date=2021-02-23|archive-date=23 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223191809/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-56175439|url-status=live}}</ref>

At the start of 2021 with the [[Tchoma Bangou and Zaroumdareye massacres]], IS-GS began killing civilians en masse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-25 |title=Massacres au Niger: peut-on éviter une guerre sans fin? |url=https://www.lavie.fr/actualite/massacres-au-niger-peut-on-eviter-une-guerre-sans-fin-72347.php |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=La Vie.fr |language=fr-FR}}</ref> On 21 March 2021, the IS-GS militants [[Tillia massacres|attacked]] several villages around [[Tillia]], killing 141 people, mostly civilians.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Macé |first=Célian |title=Au Niger, l'escalade macabre de l'Etat islamique |url=https://www.liberation.fr/international/afrique/au-niger-les-tueries-a-repetition-de-letat-islamique-20210322_3YXC74YX6NHWPELFD5OH6MR3VQ/ |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=Libération |language=fr}}</ref>

On 31 March 2021, Niger's security forces thwarted an [[2021 Nigerien coup d'état attempt|attempted coup]] by a military unit in the capital, [[Niamey]]. Gunfire was heard in the presidential palace. The attack took place two days before newly elected president [[Mohamed Bazoum]] was due to be sworn into office. The Presidential Guard arrested some people during the incident.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Niger: Attack on presidential palace an 'attempted coup'|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/3/31/heavy-gunfire-heard-near-nigers-presidency|access-date=2021-03-31|website=aljazeera.com|language=en|archive-date=31 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331175659/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/3/31/heavy-gunfire-heard-near-nigers-presidency|url-status=live}}</ref> On 2 April 2021, Bazoum was sworn in as the [[President of Niger]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/4/2/niger-president-to-be-sworn-in-after-attempted-coup |title=Mohamed Bazoum sworn in as Niger's president amid tensions |work=Aljazeera |first=Giacomo |last=Zandonini |date=2 April 2021 |access-date=26 August 2021 |archive-date=11 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811072217/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/4/2/niger-president-to-be-sworn-in-after-attempted-coup |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Fifth military regime (2023–present) ====
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[[File:Alliance of Sahel States.svg|thumb|upright|The [[Alliance of Sahel States]]]]
Late on 26 July 2023, a [[2023 Nigerien coup d'état|coup by the military]] overthrew Bazoum, putting an end to the Seventh Republic and the [[Ouhoumoudou Mahamadou's government|government]] of Prime Minister [[Ouhoumoudou Mahamadou]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 July 2023 |title=Niger soldiers announce coup on national TV |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-66320895 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230727000929/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-66320895 |archive-date=27 July 2023 |access-date=27 July 2023 |work=BBC.com}}</ref> On 28 July, General [[Abdourahamane Tchiani]] was proclaimed as the ''de facto'' head of state of the country.<ref>{{cite news |date=28 July 2023 |title=Niger general Tchiani named head of transitional government after coup |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/7/28/niger-general-tchiani-named-head-of-transitional-government-after-coup |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230728112129/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/7/28/niger-general-tchiani-named-head-of-transitional-government-after-coup |archive-date=28 July 2023 |access-date=28 July 2023 |publisher=Aljazeera}}</ref> Former finance minister [[Ali Lamine Zeine]] was declared the new [[Prime Minister of Niger]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 August 2023 |title=Officiel : voici la liste des membres du gouvernement de Transition |url=https://www.actuniger.com/politique/19415-officiel-voici-la-liste-des-membres-du-gouvernement-de-transition.html |access-date=2023-08-10 |website=actuniger.com |language=French |archive-date=7 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907183917/https://actuniger.com/politique/19415-officiel-voici-la-liste-des-membres-du-gouvernement-de-transition.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The coup was condemned by ECOWAS, which in the [[2023 Nigerien crisis]] threatened to use military intervention to reinstate the government of Bazoum if the coup leaders did not by 6 August.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lawal |first=Shola |title=Niger coup: Divisions as ECOWAS military threat fails to play out |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/6/niger-coup-divisions-as-ecowas-military-threat-fails-to-play-out |access-date=2024-04-05 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en |archive-date=7 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230807213944/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/6/niger-coup-divisions-as-ecowas-military-threat-fails-to-play-out |url-status=live }}</ref> The deadline passed without military intervention, though ECOWAS imposed sanctions, including cuts of Nigerian energy exports to Niger which had previously provided 70–90% of Niger's power.<ref name="apnews.com">{{Cite web |date=2024-02-24 |title=West Africa bloc lifts coup sanctions on Niger in a new push for dialogue to resolve tensions |url=https://apnews.com/article/west-africa-ecowas-niger-mali-burkina-faso-abuja-ae53abf8464dce5487cd7a3d73e0a9c0 |access-date=2024-04-05 |website=AP News |language=en |archive-date=12 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240312031034/https://apnews.com/article/west-africa-ecowas-niger-mali-burkina-faso-abuja-ae53abf8464dce5487cd7a3d73e0a9c0 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-08-21 |title=Power cuts in Niger threaten to spoil millions of vaccines as sanctions take their toll, UN says |url=https://apnews.com/article/niger-coup-unicef-vaccines-5e7d6610635b0aa2ffe6570cc417930e |access-date=2024-04-05 |website=AP News |language=en |archive-date=5 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240405213918/https://apnews.com/article/niger-coup-unicef-vaccines-5e7d6610635b0aa2ffe6570cc417930e |url-status=live }}</ref> In November the coup-led governments of Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger formed the [[Alliance of Sahel States]] in opposition to potential military intervention.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-24 |title=A newly formed alliance between coup-hit countries in Africa's Sahel is seen as tool for legitimacy |url=https://apnews.com/article/sahel-coups-niger-tchiani-mali-burkina-faso-insecurity-e96627c700aa4fcf8d060dd9d2d16667 |access-date=2024-04-05 |website=AP News |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240308183048/https://apnews.com/article/sahel-coups-niger-tchiani-mali-burkina-faso-insecurity-e96627c700aa4fcf8d060dd9d2d16667 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 24 February 2024 several ECOWAS sanctions against Niger were dropped, reportedly for humanitarian and diplomatic reasons,<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2024-02-25 |title=Nigeria restores electricity supply to Niger as ECOWAS lifts sanctions – Daily Trust |url=https://dailytrust.com/nigeria-restores-electricity-supply-to-niger-as-ecowas-lifts-sanctions/ |access-date=2024-04-05 |website=dailytrust.com/ |language=en-US |archive-date=5 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240405213918/https://dailytrust.com/nigeria-restores-electricity-supply-to-niger-as-ecowas-lifts-sanctions/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and Nigeria agreed to resume electricity exports to Niger.<ref name=":3"/><ref name="apnews.com"/>

In the buildup to the August ECOWAS deadline, the junta requested help from the Russian [[Wagner Group]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-08-05 |title=Niger's junta asks for help from Russian group Wagner as it faces military intervention threat |url=https://apnews.com/article/wagner-russia-coup-niger-military-force-e0e1108b58a9e955af465a3efe6605c0 |access-date=2024-04-21 |website=AP News |language=en |archive-date=11 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231011083602/https://apnews.com/article/wagner-russia-coup-niger-military-force-e0e1108b58a9e955af465a3efe6605c0 |url-status=live }}</ref> though Wagner mercenaries were not known to have entered the country as a result.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}} In October the junta expelled French troops from the country, presenting the move as a step towards sovereignty from the former colonial power,<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=2023-10-11 |title=French troops are starting to withdraw from Niger and junta leaders give UN head 72 hours to leave |url=https://apnews.com/article/france-niger-coup-military-withdrawal-bfa3afe3fdfa034dabe3dce265540411 |access-date=2024-04-21 |website=AP News |language=en |archive-date=12 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240512023400/https://apnews.com/article/france-niger-coup-military-withdrawal-bfa3afe3fdfa034dabe3dce265540411 |url-status=live }}</ref> and in December it suspended cooperation with the [[Francophonie]] alleging its promotion of French interests.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Niger suspends cooperation with international Francophone body |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2023/12/25/niger-suspends-cooperation-with-international-francophone-body |access-date=2024-04-21 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en |archive-date=21 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240421154427/https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2023/12/25/niger-suspends-cooperation-with-international-francophone-body |url-status=live }}</ref> UN resident coordinator [[Louise Aubin]] was also expelled in October after the junta alleged "underhanded maneuvers" by UN secretary-general António Guterres to prevent the country's participation in the UN General Assembly.<ref name=":4"/> In October the U.S. officially designated the takeover as a coup, suspending most Niger–U.S. military cooperation as well as hundreds of millions of dollars of foreign assistance programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-10-10 |title=The US declares the ousting of Niger's president a coup and suspends military aid and training |url=https://apnews.com/article/niger-coup-united-states-designation-2ab984947c69e99e83ce417696a758c7 |access-date=2024-04-21 |website=AP News |language=en |archive-date=21 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240421154427/https://apnews.com/article/niger-coup-united-states-designation-2ab984947c69e99e83ce417696a758c7 |url-status=live }}</ref> In April 2024, Russian military trainers and equipment began to arrive in Niger under a new military agreement,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-04-12 |title=Russian troops arrive in Niger as military agreement begins |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-68796359 |access-date=2024-04-21 |language=en-GB}}</ref> and the U.S. agreed to withdraw troops from Niger<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-04-20 |title=US agrees to pull troops out of Niger |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-68860092 |access-date=2024-04-21 |language=en-GB |archive-date=21 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240421084251/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-68860092 |url-status=live }}</ref> following the termination of a Niger–U.S. agreement that had allowed US personnel to be stationed in the country.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-03-17 |title=Niger's junta revokes military agreement with US |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-68590531 |access-date=2024-04-23 |language=en-GB}}</ref>
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