Editing Negro league baseball (section)

==History of the Negro leagues==

===Amateur era===
[[Image:Octavius Catto.jpg|left|thumb|150px|[[Octavius Catto]], black baseball pioneer]]
Because black people were not being accepted into the major and minor baseball leagues due to [[Racism in the United States|racism]] which established the [[Baseball color line|color line]], they formed their own teams and had made professional teams by the 1880s.{{sfn|Lanctot|2008|p=4}} The first known baseball game between two black teams was held on November 15, 1859, in New York City. The Henson Base Ball Club of [[Jamaica, Queens]], defeated the Unknowns of [[Weeksville, Brooklyn]], 54 to 43.{{sfn|Hogan|2006|p=6}}

Immediately after the end of the [[American Civil War]] in 1865 and during the [[Reconstruction Era|Reconstruction]] period that followed, a black baseball scene formed in the East and Mid-Atlantic states. Comprising mainly ex-soldiers and promoted by some well-known black officers, teams such as the Jamaica Monitor Club, [[Albany Bachelors]], Philadelphia Excelsiors and Chicago Uniques started playing each other and any other team that would play against them.{{cn|date=July 2024}}

By the end of the 1860s, the black baseball mecca was [[Philadelphia]], which had an African-American population of 22,000.{{sfn|Lanctot|2008|pp=3–4}} Two former [[cricket]] players, James H. Francis and Francis Wood, formed the [[Pythian Base Ball Club]]. They played in [[Camden, New Jersey]], at the landing of the Federal Street Ferry, because it was difficult to get permits for black baseball games in the city. [[Octavius Catto]], the promoter of the Pythians, decided to apply for membership in the [[National Association of Base Ball Players]], normally a matter of sending delegates to the annual convention; beyond that, a formality. At the end of the 1867 season, "the National Association of Baseball Players voted to exclude any club with a black player."{{sfn|Riley|1994|p=XVII}} In some ways ''Blackball'' thrived under [[Racial segregation in the United States|segregation]], with the few black teams of the day playing not only each other but white teams as well. "Black teams earned the bulk of their income playing white independent 'semipro' clubs."{{sfn|Riley|1994|p=4}}

===Professional baseball===
[[Image:1885 Keokuk, Iowa baseball team featuring Bud Fowler.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Bud Fowler]], the first professional black baseball player with one of his teams, [[Keokuk Indians|Western]] of [[Keokuk, Iowa]]]]
Baseball featuring African American players became professionalized by the 1870s.{{sfn|Lanctot|2008|p=3}} The first known professional black baseball player was [[Bud Fowler]], who appeared in a handful of games with a [[Chelsea, Massachusetts]] club in April 1878 and then pitched for the [[Lynn, Massachusetts]] team in the [[International Association for Professional Base Ball Players|International Association]].{{sfn|Riley|1994|p=294}}
[[Fleet Walker|Moses Fleetwood Walker]] and his brother, [[Welday Walker|Welday Wilberforce Walker]], were the first two recognizably black players in the major leagues. They both played for the 1884 [[Toledo Blue Stockings]] in the [[American Association (19th century)|American Association]], which was considered a major league at the time.{{sfn|Riley|1994|p=808}} Then in 1886 second baseman [[Frank Grant (baseball)|Frank Grant]] joined the [[Buffalo Bisons]] of the [[International League]], the strongest minor league, and hit .340, third highest in the league. Several other black American players joined the International League the following season, including pitchers [[George Stovey]] and Robert Higgins, but 1888 was the last season blacks were permitted in that or any other high minor league.

[[Image:Moses Fleetwood Walker.jpg|left|thumb|150px|[[Moses Fleetwood Walker]], possibly the first African-American major league baseball player]]
The first nationally known black professional baseball team was founded in [[1885 in baseball|1885]] when three clubs, the Keystone Athletics of Philadelphia, the Orions of Philadelphia, and the Manhattans of Washington, D.C., merged to form the [[Cuban Giants]].{{sfn|Malloy|2005|p=3}}

The success of the Cubans led to the creation of the first recognized "Negro league" in 1887—the [[National Colored Base Ball League]]. It was organized strictly as a minor league{{sfn|Holway|2001|p=21}} and founded with six teams: [[Baltimore Lord Baltimores]], [[Boston Resolutes]], [[Louisville Fall City]], [[New York Gorhams]], [[Philadelphia Pythians]], and [[Pittsburgh Keystones (baseball)|Pittsburgh Keystones]]. Two more joined before the season but never played a game, the [[Cincinnati Browns]] and [[Washington Capital Citys|Washington Capital {{Not a typo|Citys}}]]. The league, led by Walter S. Brown of [[Pittsburgh]], applied for and was granted official minor league status and thus "protection" under the major league-led [[National Agreement (baseball)|National Agreement]]. This move prevented any team in organized baseball from signing any of the NCBBL players, which also locked the players to their particular teams within the league. The reserve clause would have tied the players to their clubs from season to season but the NCBBL failed. One month into the season, the Resolutes folded. A week later, only three teams were left.{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}

Because the original Cuban Giants were a popular and business success, many similarly named teams came into existence—including the [[Cuban X-Giants]], a splinter and a powerhouse around 1900; the Genuine Cuban Giants, the renamed Cuban Giants, the [[Columbia Giants]], the [[Brooklyn Royal Giants]], and so on. The early "Cuban" teams were all composed of African Americans rather than Cubans; the purpose was to increase their acceptance with white patrons, as [[Cuba]] was on very friendly terms with the United States during those years. Beginning in 1899 several [[Baseball in Cuba|Cuban baseball teams]] played in North America, including the [[All Cubans]], the [[Cuban Stars (West)]], the [[Cuban Stars (East)]], and the [[New York Cubans]]. Some of them included white Cuban players, and some were Negro league players.{{sfn|Hogan|2006|p=89}}

The few players on the white minor league teams were constantly dodging verbal and physical abuse from both competitors and fans. The [[Compromise of 1877]] removed the few remaining obstacles from the South enacting [[Jim Crow laws]], allowing legal discrimination against blacks. On July 14, 1887, [[Cap Anson]]'s [[Chicago White Stockings (1870–89)|Chicago White Stockings]] were scheduled to play the Newark Giants of the International League, which had Fleet Walker and [[George Stovey]] on its roster. After Anson marched his team onto the field in military style as was his custom, he declared that his team would not play unless Walker and Stovey were barred from the field. Newark capitulated, and later that same day, league owners voted to refuse future contracts to blacks, citing the "hazards" imposed by such athletes.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|first=Howard W.|title=Cap Anson 4: Bigger Than Babe Ruth: Captain Anson of Chicago|publisher=Tile Books|year=2006|page=560|isbn=978-0-9725574-3-6}}, pp. 436–37.</ref>

In 1888, the [[Middle States League]] was formed and it admitted two all-black teams to its otherwise all-white league, the Cuban Giants and their arch-rivals, the [[New York Gorhams]]. Despite the animosity between the two clubs, they managed to form a traveling team, the Colored All Americans. This enabled them to make money [[barnstorm (sports)|barnstorming]] while fulfilling their league obligations. In 1890, the Giants returned to their independent, barnstorming identity, and by 1892, they were the only black team in the East still in operation on a full-time basis.

===Frank Leland===
[[Image:ChiUnionGiants 1905.jpg|right|thumb|350px|[[Leland Giants|Chicago Union Giants]] in 1905]]
Also in 1888, [[Frank Leland]] got some of Chicago's black businessmen to sponsor the black amateur [[Union Base Ball Club]]. Through Chicago's city government, Leland obtained a permit and lease to play at the [[South Side Park]], a 5,000-seat facility. Eventually, his team went pro and became the [[Chicago Unions]].{{sfn|Holway|2001|p=474}}

After his stint with the Gorhams, Bud Fowler caught on with a team out of [[Findlay, Ohio]]. While his team was playing in [[Adrian, Michigan]], Fowler was persuaded by two white local businessmen, [[L. W. Hoch]] and [[Rolla Taylor]] to help them start a team financed by the Page Woven Wire Fence Company, the [[Page Fence Giants]]. The Page Fence Giants went on to become a powerhouse team that had no home field. Barnstorming through the Midwest, they would play all comers. Their success became the prototype for black baseball for years to come.

After the 1898 season, the Page Fence Giants were forced to fold because of finances. [[Alvin H. Garrett]], a black businessman in Chicago, and [[John W. Patterson]], the [[left fielder]] for the Page Fence Giants, reformed the team under the name the [[Columbia Giants]]. In 1901, the Giants folded because of a lack of a place to play. Leland bought the Giants in 1905 and merged it with his Unions (despite the fact that not a single Giant player ended up on the roster), and named them the [[Leland Giants]].{{sfn|Holway|2001|p=474}}

===Rube Foster===
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Sp4.jpg|frame|right|Andrew Rube Foster]] -->
The [[Philadelphia Giants]], owned by [[Walter Schlichter]], a white businessman, rose to prominence in 1903 when they lost to the Cuban X-Giants in their version of the "Colored Championship". Leading the way for the Cubans was a young pitcher by the name of [[Rube Foster|Andrew "Rube" Foster]]. The following season, Schlichter, in the finest blackball tradition, hired Foster away from the Cubans and beat them in their 1904 rematch. Philadelphia remained on top of the blackball world until Foster left the team in 1907 to play and manage the [[Leland Giants]] (Frank Leland renamed his Chicago Union Giants the Leland Giants in 1905).{{cn|date=July 2024}}

Around the same time, [[Nat Strong]], a white businessman, started using his ownership of baseball fields in the New York City area to become the leading promoter of blackball on the East coast. Just about any game played in New York, Strong would get a cut. Strong eventually used his leverage to almost put the [[Brooklyn Royal Giants]] out of business, and then he bought the club and turned it into a barnstorming team.{{cn|date=July 2024}}

When Foster joined the Leland Giants, he demanded that he be put in charge of not only the on-field activities but the bookings as well. Foster immediately turned the Giants into ''the'' team to beat. He indoctrinated them to take the extra base, to play hit and run on nearly every pitch, and to rattle the opposing pitcher by taking them deep into the count. He studied the mechanics of his pitchers and could spot the smallest flaw, turning his average pitchers into learned craftsmen. Foster also was able to turn around the business end of the team as well, by demanding and getting 40 percent of the gate instead of the 10 percent that Frank Leland was getting.{{cn|date=July 2024}}

By the end of the 1909, Foster demanded that Leland step back from all baseball operations or he (Foster) would leave. When Leland would not give up complete control, Foster quit, and in a heated court battle, got to keep the rights to the Leland Giants' name. Leland took the players and started a new team named the Chicago Giants, while Foster took the Leland Giants and started to encroach on Nat Strong's territory.{{cn|date=July 2024}}

As early as 1910, Foster started talking about reviving the concept of an all-black league. The one thing he was insistent upon was that black teams should be owned by black men. This put him in direct competition with Strong. After 1910, Foster renamed his team the [[Chicago American Giants]] to appeal to a larger fan base. During the same year, [[J. L. Wilkinson]] started the [[All Nations]] traveling team. The All Nations team would eventually become one of the best-known and popular teams of the Negro leagues, the [[Kansas City Monarchs]].{{cn|date=July 2024}}

On April 6, 1917, the United States entered World War I. Manpower needed by the defense plants and industry accelerated the migration of blacks from the South to the North. This meant a larger and more affluent fan base with more money to spend. By the end of the war in 1919, Foster was again ready to start a Negro baseball league.{{cn|date=July 2024}}

On February 13 and 14, 1920, talks were held in [[Kansas City, Missouri]], that established the [[Negro National League (the first)|Negro National League]] and its governing body the [[National Association of Colored Professional Base Ball Clubs]].{{sfn|Hauser|2006|p=5}} The league was initially composed of eight teams: Chicago American Giants, [[Chicago Giants]], Cuban Stars, [[Dayton Marcos]], [[Detroit Stars]], [[Indianapolis ABCs]], Kansas City Monarchs, and [[St. Louis Giants]]. Foster was named league president and controlled every aspect of the league, including which players played on which teams, when and where teams played, and what equipment was used (all of which had to be purchased from Foster).{{sfn|Hauser|2006|p=5}} Foster, as booking agent of the league, took a five percent cut of all gate receipts.

===Golden age===
On May 2, 1920, the Indianapolis ABCs beat Charles "Joe" Green's Chicago<ref>Chicago Defender May 8, 1920, p 16</ref> Giants (4–2) in the first game played in the inaugural season of the Negro National League, played at Washington Park in Indianapolis.{{sfn|Hauser|2006|p=6}} However, because of the [[Chicago Race Riot of 1919]], the National Guard still occupied the Giants' home field, [[Schorling's Park]] (formerly South Side Park). This forced Foster to cancel all the Giants' home games for almost a month and threatened to become a huge embarrassment for the league. On March 2, 1920, the Negro Southern League was founded in Atlanta, Georgia.{{sfn|Hauser|2006|pp=5–6}} In 1921, the [[Negro Southern League (1920–36)|Negro Southern League]] joined Foster's [[National Association of Colored Professional Base Ball Clubs]]. As a dues-paying member of the association, it received the same protection from raiding parties as any team in the Negro National League.

Foster then admitted John Connors' [[Atlantic City Bacharach Giants]] as an associate member to move further into [[Nat Strong]]'s territory. Connors, wanting to return the favor of helping him against Strong, raided [[Ed Bolden]]'s [[Hilldale Daisies]] team. Bolden saw little choice but to team up with Foster's nemesis, Nat Strong. Within days of calling a truce with Strong, Bolden made an about-face and signed up as an associate member of Foster's Negro National League.

On December 16, 1922, Bolden once again shifted sides and, with Strong, formed the Eastern Colored League as an alternative to Foster's Negro National League, which started with six teams: Atlantic City Bacharach Giants, [[Baltimore Black Sox]], Brooklyn Royal Giants, New York Cuban Stars, Hilldale, and [[New York Lincoln Giants]].{{sfn|Hauser|2006|p=15}} The National League was having trouble maintaining continuity among its franchises: three teams folded and had to be replaced after the 1921 season, two others after the 1922 season, and two more after the 1923 season. Foster replaced the defunct teams, sometimes promoting whole teams from the Negro Southern League into the NNL. Finally Foster and Bolden met and agreed to an annual [[Negro World Series|World Series]] beginning in [[1924 Colored World Series|1924]].
[[File:1924 Negro League World Series.jpg|800px|thumb|center|{{center|The two opposing teams line up at the [[1924 Colored World Series]].}}]]

Although this was a strong beginning to the [[Negro Leagues]], throughout the 1920's the leagues were very unorganized, having teams play uneven numbers of games. Teams would skip official games for non-league matchups which would be more lucrative for the team. Players would jump from franchise to franchise, looking for the highest pay, causing imbalance within the leagues. 


1925 saw the [[St. Louis Stars (baseball)|St. Louis Stars]] come of age in the Negro National League. They finished in second place during the second half of the year due in large part to their pitcher turned center fielder, [[Cool Papa Bell]], and their shortstop, [[Willie Wells]]. A gas leak in his home nearly asphyxiated Rube Foster in 1926, and his increasingly erratic behavior led to him being committed to an asylum a year later. While Foster was out of the picture, the owners of the National League elected [[William C. Hueston]] as new league president. In 1927, Ed Bolden suffered a similar fate as Foster, by committing himself to a hospital because the pressure was too great. The Eastern League folded shortly after that, marking the end of the World Series between the NNL and the ECL.

After the Eastern League folded following the 1927 season, a new eastern league, the [[American Negro League]], was formed to replace it. The makeup of the new ANL was nearly the same as the Eastern League, the exception being that the [[Homestead Grays]] joined in place of the now-defunct Brooklyn Royal Giants. The ANL lasted just one season. In the face of harder economic times, the Negro National League folded after the 1931 season. Some of its teams joined the only Negro league then left, the Negro Southern League. Only strong independent clubs were able to survive the hard economic turn that affected the country, such as the [[Kansas City Monarchs]]. During this time, strong clubs would build teams that had potential to beat the teams in the major leagues with new players and tactics that many have never seen before. 

On March 26, 1932, the Chicago [[Chicago Defender|''Defender'']] announced the end of Negro National League.{{sfn|Hauser|2006|p=72}}

===Satchel Paige, Josh Gibson, and Gus Greenlee===
Just as Negro league baseball seemed to be at its lowest point and was about to fade into history, along came [[Cumberland Posey]] and his Homestead Grays. Posey, Charlie Walker, John Roesnik, George Rossiter, John Drew, Lloyd Thompson, and L.R. Williams got together in January 1932 and founded the [[East–West League]]. Eight cities were included in the new league: "Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Detroit, Baltimore, Cleveland, Newark, New York, and Washington, D.C.".{{sfn|Hauser|2006|pp=71–72}} By May 1932, the Detroit Wolves were about to collapse, and instead of letting the team go, Posey kept pumping money into it. By June the Wolves had disintegrated and all the rest of the teams, except for the Grays, were beyond help, so Posey had to terminate the league.

Across town from Posey, [[Gus Greenlee]], a reputed gangster and [[Numbers game|numbers runner]], had just purchased the [[Pittsburgh Crawfords]]. Greenlee's main interest in baseball was to use it as a way to [[money laundering|launder money]] from his numbers games. But, after learning about Posey's money-making machine in [[Homestead, Pennsylvania|Homestead]], he became obsessed with the sport and his Crawfords. On August 6, 1931, [[Satchel Paige]] made his first appearance as a Crawford. With Paige on his team, Greenlee took a huge risk by investing $100,000 in a new ballpark to be called [[Greenlee Field]]. On opening day, April 30, 1932, the pitcher-catcher battery was made up of the two most marketable icons in all of black baseball: Satchel Paige and [[Josh Gibson]].

In 1933, Greenlee, riding the popularity of his Crawfords, became the next man to start a Negro league. In February 1933, Greenlee and delegates from six other teams met at Greenlee's Crawford Grill to ratify the constitution of the [[National Organization of Professional Baseball Clubs]]. The name of the new league was the same as the old league [[Negro National League (the second)|Negro National League]] which had disbanded a year earlier in 1932.{{sfn|Hauser|2006|p=75}} The members of the new league were the Pittsburgh Crawfords, the [[Columbus Blue Birds]], the Indianapolis ABCs, the Baltimore Black Sox, the Brooklyn Royal Giants, Cole's American Giants (formerly the [[Chicago American Giants]]), and the Nashville Elite Giants. Greenlee also came up with the idea to duplicate the [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game]], except, unlike the big league method in which the sportswriters chose the players, the fans voted for the participants. The first game, known as the [[East–West All-Star Game]], was held September 10, 1933, at [[Comiskey Park]] in Chicago before a crowd of 20,000.{{sfn|Hogan|2006|pp=284–85}}

===World War II===
With the Japanese [[Attack on Pearl Harbor]] on December 7, 1941, the United States was thrust into World War II. Remembering World War I, black America vowed it would not be shut out of the beneficial effects of a major war effort: economic boom and social unification.{{cn|date=July 2024}}

Just like the major leagues, the Negro leagues saw many stars miss one or more seasons while fighting overseas. While many players were over 30 and considered "too old" for service, [[Monte Irvin]], [[Larry Doby]] and [[Leon Day]] of [[Newark Eagles|Newark]]; [[Ford Smith]], [[Hank Thompson (baseball)|Hank Thompson]], [[Joe Greene (baseball)|Joe Greene]], [[Willard Brown]] and [[Buck O'Neil]] of [[Kansas City Monarchs|Kansas City]]; [[Lyman Bostock, Sr.|Lyman Bostock]] of [[Birmingham Black Barons|Birmingham]]; and [[Lick Carlisle]] and [[Howard Easterling]] of [[Homestead Grays|Homestead]] all served.{{sfn|Holway|2001|p=404}} But the white majors were barely recognizable, while the Negro leagues reached their highest plateau. Millions of black Americans were working in war industries and, making good money, they packed league games in every city. Business was so good that promoter [[Abe Saperstein]] (famous for the [[Harlem Globetrotters]]) started a new circuit, the [[Negro Midwest League]], a minor league similar to the Negro Southern League. The [[Negro World Series]] was revived in 1942, this time pitting the winners of the eastern [[Negro National League (the second)|Negro National League]] and midwestern [[Negro American League]]. It continued through 1948 with the NNL winning four championships and the NAL three.

In 1946, Saperstein partnered with [[Jesse Owens]] to form another Negro league, the [[West Coast Baseball Association]] (WCBA); Saperstein was league president and Owens was vice-president and the owner of the league's [[Portland Rosebuds (baseball)|Portland (Oregon) Rosebuds]] franchise.<ref name="oba2005">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.bookrags.com/tandf/west-coast-baseball-association-tf/|title=West Coast Baseball Association|encyclopedia=Organizing Black America: An Encyclopedia of African American Associations|date=February 10, 2005|publisher=[[BookRags]]|access-date=July 31, 2010}}</ref> The WCBA disbanded after only two months.<ref name="oba2005"/>

===Integration era===
[[Kenesaw Mountain Landis|Judge Kenesaw M. Landis]], the first [[Commissioner of Baseball]], was an intractable opponent of integrating the white majors. During his quarter-century tenure, he blocked all attempts at integrating the game. A popular story has it that in {{Baseball year|1943}}, [[Bill Veeck]] planned to buy the moribund [[Philadelphia Phillies]] and stock them with Negro league stars. However, when Landis got wind of his plans,<ref name="Moore">{{cite book|last=Moore|first=Joseph Thomas|title=Pride and Prejudice: The Biography of Larry Doby|location=New York|publisher=Praeger Publishers|year=1988|isbn=0275929841|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LjfGgiauBfcC&q=larry+doby+joe+gordon&pg=PA51|page=40}}</ref> he and National League president [[Ford C. Frick|Ford Frick]] scuttled it in favor of another bid by [[William D. Cox]].

After Landis's death in 1944, [[Happy Chandler]] was named his successor. Chandler was open to integrating the game, even at the risk of losing his job as Commissioner. He later said in his biography that he could not, in good conscience, tell black players they could not play baseball with whites when they had fought for their country [although they had fought in segregated units].

In March 1945, the white majors created the [[Major League Committee on Baseball Integration]]. Its members included [[Joseph P. Rainey]], [[Larry MacPhail]] and [[Branch Rickey]]. Because MacPhail, who was an outspoken critic of integration, kept stalling, the committee never met. Under the guise of starting an all-black league, Rickey sent scouts all around the United States, Mexico and [[Puerto Rico]], looking for the perfect candidate to break the color line. His list was eventually narrowed down to three: [[Roy Campanella]], [[Don Newcombe]] and [[Jackie Robinson]].

On August 28, 1945, Jackie Robinson met with Rickey in Brooklyn, where Rickey gave Robinson a "test" by berating him and shouting racial epithets that Robinson would hear from day one in the white game. Having passed the test,{{how|date=April 2016}} Robinson signed the contract which stipulated that from then on, Robinson had no "written or moral obligations"{{sfn|Ribowsky|1995|p=279}} to any other club. By the inclusion of this clause, precedent was set that would raze the Negro leagues as a functional commercial enterprise.

To throw off the press and keep his intentions hidden, Rickey got heavily involved in [[Gus Greenlee]]'s newest foray into black baseball, the [[United States League]]. Greenlee started the league in 1945 as a way to get back at the owners of the Negro National League teams for throwing him out. Rickey saw the opportunity as a way to convince people that he was interested in cleaning up blackball, not integrating it. In midsummer 1945, Rickey, almost ready with his Robinson plan, pulled out of the league. The league folded after the end of the 1946 season.

Pressured by civil rights groups, the [[Fair Employment Practices Act]] was passed by the [[New York State Legislature]] in 1945. This followed the passing of the [[Quinn-Ives Act]] banning discrimination in hiring. At the same time, [[Mayor of New York City|NYC Mayor]] [[Fiorello La Guardia|La Guardia]] formed the [[Mayor's Commission on Baseball]] to study integration of the major leagues. All this led to Rickey announcing the signing of Robinson much earlier than he would have liked. On October 23, 1945, [[Montreal Royals]] president [[Hector Racine]] announced that, "We are signing this boy."{{sfn|Ribowsky|1995|p=279}}

Early in 1946, Rickey signed four more black players, Campanella, Newcombe, [[John Wright (baseball)|John Wright]] and [[Roy Partlow]], this time with much less fanfare. After the integration of the major leagues in 1947, marked by the appearance of [[Jackie Robinson]] with the [[Brooklyn Dodgers]] that April, interest in Negro league baseball waned. Black players who were regarded as prospects were signed by major league teams, often without regard for any contracts that might have been signed with Negro league clubs. Negro league owners who complained about this practice were in a [[no-win situation]]: They could not protect their own interests without seeming to interfere with the advancement of players to the majors. By 1948, the Dodgers, along with Veeck's [[Cleveland Indians]], had integrated.

The Negro leagues also "integrated" around the same time, as [[Eddie Klep]] pitched for the [[Cleveland Buckeyes]] during the 1946 season, becoming the first white American to play in the Negro leagues.

These moves came despite strong opposition from the owners; Rickey was the only one of the 16 owners to support integrating the sport in January 1947. Chandler's decision to overrule them may have been a factor in his ouster in 1951 in favor of [[Ford C. Frick]].

===End of the Negro leagues===
Some proposals were floated to bring the Negro leagues into "organized baseball" as developmental leagues for black players, but that was recognized as contrary to the goal of full integration. And so, the Negro leagues, once among the largest and most prosperous black-owned business ventures, were allowed to fade into oblivion.

First a trickle and then a flood of players signed with major league baseball teams. Most signed minor league contracts and many languished, shuttled from one bush league team to another despite their success at that level.

The Negro National League folded after the 1948 season when the Grays withdrew to resume barnstorming, the [[Newark Eagles]] moved from [[New Jersey]] to [[Houston, Texas]], and the [[New York Black Yankees]] folded. The Grays folded one year later after losing $30,000 in the barnstorming effort. The Negro American League was the only "major" Negro league operating in 1949. Within two years it had been reduced to minor league caliber and it played its last game in 1958.

The last All-Star game was held in 1962, and by 1966 the [[Indianapolis Clowns]] were the last Negro league team still playing. The Clowns continued to play exhibition games into the 1980s, but as a humorous sideshow rather than a competitive sport.