Editing Morocco (section)

== History ==
{{main|History of Morocco}}

=== Prehistory and antiquity ===
The area of present-day Morocco has been inhabited since at least [[Paleolithic|Paleolithic times]], beginning sometime between 190,000 and 90,000&nbsp;BC.<ref>[http://www.eva.mpg.de/evolution/files/irhoud.htm Field Projects – Jebel Irhoud ] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170112002657/http://www.eva.mpg.de/evolution/files/irhoud.htm |date=12 January 2017}}. Department of Human Evolution. [[Max Planck]] Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</ref> A recent publication has suggested that there is evidence for even earlier human habitation of the area: ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' fossils that had been discovered in the late 2000s near the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic coast]] in [[Jebel Irhoud]] were recently dated to roughly 315,000 years ago.<ref>[http://www.nature.com/news/oldest-homo-sapiens-fossil-claim-rewrites-our-species-history-1.22114 Oldest Homo sapiens fossil claim rewrites our species' history ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116175722/http://www.nature.com/news/oldest-homo-sapiens-fossil-claim-rewrites-our-species-history-1.22114 |date=16 November 2017 }} News. [[Nature Magazine]], International Weekly Journal of Science</ref>  During the [[Upper Paleolithic]], the [[Maghreb]] was more fertile than it is today, resembling a [[savanna]], in contrast to its modern arid landscape.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rubella |first=D. |title=From hunters to farmers the causes and consequences of food production in Africa |year=1984 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=978-0520045743 |pages=41–56 |editor=J.D. Clark & S.A. Brandt |chapter=Environmentalism and Pi Paleolithic economies in the Maghreb (c. 20,000 to 5000 B.P.)}}</ref>

DNA studies of [[Iberomaurusian]] peoples at [[Taforalt]], Morocco dating to around 15,000 years ago have found them to have a distinctive Maghrebi ancestry formed from a mixture of [[Near East]]ern and African ancestry, which is still found as a part of the genome of modern Northwest Africans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=van de Loosdrecht |first1=Marieke |last2=Bouzouggar |first2=Abdeljalil |last3=Humphrey |first3=Louise |last4=Posth |first4=Cosimo |last5=Barton |first5=Nick |last6=Aximu-Petri |first6=Ayinuer |last7=Nickel |first7=Birgit |last8=Nagel |first8=Sarah |last9=Talbi |first9=El Hassan |last10=El Hajraoui |first10=Mohammed Abdeljalil |last11=Amzazi |first11=Saaïd |last12=Hublin |first12=Jean-Jacques |last13=Pääbo |first13=Svante |last14=Schiffels |first14=Stephan |last15=Meyer |first15=Matthias |date=2018-05-04 |title=Pleistocene North African genomes link Near Eastern and sub-Saharan African human populations |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aar8380 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=360 |issue=6388 |pages=548–552 |doi=10.1126/science.aar8380 |pmid=29545507 |bibcode=2018Sci...360..548V |issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Later during the [[Neolithic]], from around 7,500 years ago onwards, there was a migration into Northwest Africa of [[Early European Farmers|European Neolithic Farmers]] from the Iberian Peninsula (who had originated in [[Anatolia]] several thousand years prior), as well as pastoralists from the [[Levant]], both of whom also significantly contributed to the ancestry of modern Northwest Africans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Simões |first1=Luciana G. |last2=Günther |first2=Torsten |last3=Martínez-Sánchez |first3=Rafael M. |last4=Vera-Rodríguez |first4=Juan Carlos |last5=Iriarte |first5=Eneko |last6=Rodríguez-Varela |first6=Ricardo |last7=Bokbot |first7=Youssef |last8=Valdiosera |first8=Cristina |last9=Jakobsson |first9=Mattias |date=2023-06-15 |title=Northwest African Neolithic initiated by migrants from Iberia and Levant |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=618 |issue=7965 |pages=550–556 |doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06166-6 |issn=0028-0836 |pmc=10266975 |pmid=37286608|bibcode=2023Natur.618..550S }}</ref> The [[Proto-Berber language|proto-Berber]] tribes evolved from these prehistoric communities during the late [[Bronze Age|Bronze]]- and early [[Iron Age|Iron]] ages.<ref>Mário Curtis Giordani, ''História da África. Anterior aos descobrimentos.'' Editora Vozes, Petrópolis (Brasil) 1985, pp. 42f., 77f. Giordani references Bousquet, ''Les Berbères'' (Paris 1961).</ref>

In the early part of [[Classical Antiquity]], Northwest Africa and Morocco were slowly drawn into the wider emerging [[Mediterranean]] world by the [[Phoenicians]], who established trading colonies and settlements there, the most substantial of which were [[Chellah]], [[Lixus (ancient city)|Lixus]], and [[Mogador]].<ref>{{cite web |author=The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map |url=http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=17926 |title=C. Michael Hogan, ''Mogador: Promontory Fort'', The Megalithic Portal, ed. Andy Burnham |publisher=Megalithic.co.uk |access-date=2 June 2010 |archive-date=5 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805181526/https://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=17926 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mogador was established as a Phoenician colony as early as the 6th century BC.<ref>Moscati, Sabatino (2001) ''The Phoenicians'', Tauris, {{ISBN|1-85043-533-2}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2013}}

[[File:Volubilis Longshot II.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Roman ruins of [[Volubilis]]]]
Morocco later became a realm of the Northwest African civilisation of [[ancient Carthage]], and part of the Carthaginian empire. The earliest known independent Moroccan state was the [[Mauretania|Berber kingdom of Mauretania]], under King [[Baga (king)|Baga]].<ref>[[Livy]] ''[[Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Livy)|Ab Urbe Condita Libri]]'' 29.30</ref> This ancient kingdom (not to be confused with the modern state of [[Mauritania]]) flourished around 225&nbsp;BC or earlier. [[Mauretania]] became a [[Client state|client]] kingdom of the [[Roman Empire]] in 33 BC. Emperor [[Claudius]] annexed Mauretania directly in 44 AD, making it a [[Roman province]] ruled by an imperial [[governor]] (either a ''procurator Augusti'', or a ''legatus Augusti pro praetore'').

[[Christianity]] in Morocco appeared during the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] times, when it was practiced by [[Berber Christians]] in Roman [[Mauretania Tingitana]].<ref>{{cite book | last=Asiwaju | first=A.I. |date=January 1985 | title=Partitioned Africans: Ethnic Relations Across Africa's International Boundaries | publisher=C. Hurst & Co |isbn=0-905838-91-2 | page=237 }}</ref> During the [[Crisis of the Third Century]], parts of Mauretania were reconquered by Berbers. By the late 3rd century, direct Roman rule had become confined to a few coastal cities, such as Septum ([[Ceuta]]) in [[Mauretania Tingitana]] and [[Cherchell]] in [[Mauretania Caesariensis]]. When, in 429 AD, the area was devastated by the [[Vandals]], the Roman Empire lost its remaining possessions in Mauretania, and local [[Mauro-Roman kingdom|Mauro-Roman kings]] assumed control of them. In the 530s, the [[Eastern Roman Empire]], under Byzantine control, re-established direct imperial rule of Septum and [[Tingi]], fortified Tingis and erected a church.

=== <span class="anchor" id="Foundation"></span><span class="anchor" id="Dynasties"></span><span class="anchor" id="Foundation and dynasties"></span> Foundation and dynasties ===
[[File:Idrisids coin minted at Al Aliyah Morocco 840 CE.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Idrisid]] coin in [[Fez, Morocco|Fes]], 840]]
The [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb]] that had begun during the mid-7th century was completed under the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] by 709. The caliphate introduced both [[Islam]] and the Arabic language to the area; this period also saw the beginning of a trend of [[Arab migration to the Maghreb]] which would last for centuries and effect a demographic shift in the region. While constituting part of the larger empire, Morocco was initially organised as a subsidiary province of [[Ifriqiya]], with the local governors appointed by the Muslim governor in [[Kairouan]].<ref>Abun-Nasr 1987, p.33</ref>

The indigenous Berber tribes adopted Islam, but retained their [[customary law]]s. They also paid taxes and tribute to the new Muslim administration.<ref>Abun-Nasr 1987, pp. 33–34</ref> The first independent Muslim state in the area of modern Morocco was the [[Kingdom of Nekor]], an emirate in the [[Rif Mountains]]. It was founded by [[Salih I ibn Mansur]] in 710, as a client state to the Umayyad Caliphate. After the outbreak of the [[Berber Revolt]] in 739, the Berbers formed other independent states such as the [[Miknasa]] of [[Sijilmasa]] and the [[Barghawata]].
[[File:29610-Fez (28134041211) (qarawiyyin crop).jpg|thumb|[[University of al-Qarawiyyin|al-Qarawiyyin]], founded in [[Fez, Morocco|Fes]] in the 9th century, was a major spiritual, literary, and intellectual centre.]]
The founder of the [[Idrisid dynasty]] and the great-grandson of [[Hasan ibn Ali]], [[Idris ibn Abdallah]], had fled to Morocco after the massacre of his family by the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasids]] in the [[Hejaz]]. He convinced the Awraba Berber tribes to break their allegiance to the distant Abbasid caliphs and he founded the Idrisid dynasty in 788. The Idrisids established [[Fes, Morocco|Fes]] as their capital and Morocco became a centre of Muslim learning and a major [[regional power]]. The Idrisids were ousted in 927 by the [[Fatimid Caliphate]] and their Miknasa allies. After Miknasa broke off relations with the Fatimids in 932, they were removed from power by the [[Maghrawa]] of Sijilmasa in 980.

[[File:Empire almohade.PNG|thumb|right|The empire of the [[Almohad dynasty]] at its greatest extent, {{circa|1212}}]]
From the 11th century onward, a series of Berber dynasties arose.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gGKsS-9h4BYC&pg=PT861 |title=Concise Encyclopaedia of World History |isbn=978-81-269-0775-5 |last1=Ramirez-Faria |first1=Carlos |date=2007 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=4 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230804074800/https://books.google.com/books?id=gGKsS-9h4BYC&pg=PT861 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/almoravides/|title=Almoravides|encyclopedia=Universalis Encyclopedia|date=19 January 1999 |access-date=25 July 2011|archive-date=19 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719002639/http://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/almoravides/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/365388/Marinid-dynasty|title=Marīnid dynasty|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=23 June 2022|archive-date=2 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150602202549/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/365388/Marinid-dynasty|url-status=live}}</ref> Under the [[Sanhaja]] [[Almoravid dynasty]] and the [[Masmuda]] [[Almohad dynasty]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/418538/North-Africa/46490/The-Maghrib-under-the-Almoravids-and-the-Almohads |title=The Maghrib under the Almoravids and the Almohads |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=1 August 2011 |archive-date=14 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314013819/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/418538/North-Africa/46490/The-Maghrib-under-the-Almoravids-and-the-Almohads |url-status=live }}</ref> Morocco dominated the Maghreb, [[al-Andalus]] in [[Iberia]], and the western Mediterranean region. From the 13th century onward the country saw a [[Arab migration to the Maghreb|massive migration]] of the [[Banu Hilal]] Arab tribes. In the 13th and 14th centuries the [[Zenata]] Berber [[Marinids]] held power in Morocco and strove to replicate the successes of the Almohads through military campaigns in Algeria and Spain. They were followed by the [[Wattasids]]. In the 15th century, the [[Reconquista]] ended Muslim rule in Iberia and many Muslims and [[History of the Jews in Morocco|Jews]] fled to Morocco.<ref name="brit">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/392604/Morocco |title=Morocco – History |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=1 August 2011 |archive-date=31 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110731173203/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/392604/Morocco |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Portugal|Portuguese]] efforts to control the Atlantic sea trade in the 15th century did not greatly affect the interior of Morocco even though they managed to control some possessions on the Moroccan coast but not venturing further afield inland.

[[File:Porto April 2019-7.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Portuguese Empire]] was founded when [[Prince Henry the Navigator]] led the [[conquest of Ceuta]], which began the Portuguese presence in Morocco, lasting from 1415 to 1769.]]

In 1549, the region fell to successive Arab dynasties claiming descent from the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]]: first the [[Saadi dynasty]] who ruled from 1549 to 1659, and then the [[Alawi dynasty]], who have remained in power since the 17th century. Morocco faced aggression from [[Spain]] in the north, and the Ottoman Empire's allies pressing westward.

[[File:Palais El Badii - panoramio.jpg|thumb|The remains of the Saadi sultan [[Ahmad al-Mansur]]'s 16th century [[Badi' Palace]]]]

Under the Saadis, the sultanate [[Portuguese succession crisis of 1580|ended the Portuguese Aviz dynasty]] in 1578 at the [[Battle of Alcácer Quibir]]. The reign of [[Ahmad al-Mansur]] brought new wealth and prestige to the Sultanate, and a [[Saadian invasion of the Songhai Empire|large expedition]] to West Africa inflicted a crushing defeat on the [[Songhay Empire]] in 1591. However, managing the territories across the [[Sahara]] proved too difficult.<ref name="Kaba81">{{citation | last=Kaba | first= Lansiné | year=1981 | title=Archers, musketeers, and mosquitoes: The Moroccan invasion of the Sudan and the Songhay resistance (1591–1612) | journal= Journal of African History | volume=22 | issue= 4 | pages=457–475 | jstor=181298 | doi=10.1017/S0021853700019861 | pmid=11632225| s2cid= 41500711 }}.</ref> Upon the death of al-Mansur, the country was divided among his sons.

After a period of political fragmentation and conflict during the decline of the Saadi dynasty, Morocco was finally reunited by the Alawi sultan [[Al-Rashid of Morocco|al-Rashid]] in the late 1660s, who took Fez in 1666 and Marrakesh in 1668.<ref name="Abun-Nasr1987" />{{Rp|230}}<ref name=":20">{{Cite book |last=Rivet |first=Daniel |title=Histoire du Maroc: de Moulay Idrîs à Mohammed VI |publisher=Fayard |year=2012}}</ref>{{Rp|225}} The 'Alawis succeeded in stabilising their position, and while the kingdom was smaller than previous ones in the region, it remained quite wealthy. Against the opposition of local tribes [[Ismail Ibn Sharif]] (1672–1727) began to create a unified state.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20091030183303/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761572952_8/Morocco.html Morocco (Page 8 of 9)]". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009. 1 November 2009.</ref> With his [[Rif]]fian army, he re-occupied [[English Tangier|Tangier]] from the English who had abandoned it in 1684 and drove the Spanish from [[Larache]] in 1689. The Portuguese abandoned [[Mazagan|Mazagão]], their last territory in Morocco, in 1769. However, the [[Siege of Melilla (1774)|siege of Melilla]] against the Spanish ended in defeat in 1775.

Morocco was the first nation to recognise the fledgling United States as an independent nation in 1777.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2013/11/22/joint-statement-united-states-america-and-kingdom-morocco|work=[[whitehouse.gov]]|title=Joint Statement by the United States of America and the Kingdom of Morocco|via=[[NARA|National Archives]]|date=22 November 2013|access-date=1 March 2021|archive-date=10 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161110084924/https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/11/22/joint-statement-united-states-america-and-kingdom-morocco|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=((USA (NA) International Business Publications))|title=Morocco Foreign Policy And Government Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5V77mdCXHJcC&pg=PA114|date=2004|publisher=Int'l Business Publications|isbn=978-0-7397-6000-0|pages=114–}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.defense.gov/News/News-Stories/id/41811/ |title=Cohen Renews U.S.-Morocco Ties |access-date=12 March 2009 |author=Kozaryn, Linda D. |work=U.S. Department of Defense |archive-date=28 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100228080125/http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=41811 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the beginning of the [[American Revolution]], American merchant ships in the Atlantic Ocean were subject to attacks by other fleets. On 20 December 1777, Morocco's Sultan [[Mohammed ben Abdallah|Mohammed III]] declared that American merchant ships would be under the protection of the sultanate and could thus enjoy safe passage. The 1786 [[Moroccan–American Treaty of Friendship]] stands as the United States' oldest unbroken friendship treaty.<ref>Roberts, Priscilla H. and Richard S. Roberts, ''Thomas Barclay (1728–1793): Consul in France, Diplomat in Barbary'', Lehigh University Press, 2008, pp. 206–223 {{ISBN|093422398X}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/s/d/rm/rls/perfrpt/2002/html/18995.htm |title=Milestones of American Diplomacy, Interesting Historical Notes, and Department of State History |access-date=17 December 2007 |work=U.S. Department of State |archive-date=10 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210003512/https://2009-2017.state.gov/s/d/rm/rls/perfrpt/2002/html/18995.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== French and Spanish protectorates ===
{{main|French protectorate in Morocco|Spanish protectorate in Morocco}}
[[File:La Paz de Wad-Ras.jpg|thumb|The [[Treaty of Wad Ras]] after the [[Hispano-Moroccan War (1859–1860)]] bankrupted Morocco's national treasury, forcing the [[Makhzen]] to take on a British loan<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Miller, Susan Gilson.|title=A history of modern Morocco|date=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-62469-5|location=New York|pages=25|oclc=855022840}}</ref>]]
As Europe industrialised, Northwest Africa was increasingly prized for its potential for colonisation. France showed a strong interest in Morocco as early as 1830, not only to protect the border of its Algerian territory, but also because of the strategic position of Morocco with coasts on the Mediterranean and the open Atlantic.<ref>{{cite book |title=Morocco since 1830: A History|isbn=978-0814766774 |last=Pennell |first=C. R. |year=2000 |publisher=New York University Press |location=New York |page=40}}</ref> In 1860, a dispute over Spain's Ceuta enclave led Spain to declare war. Victorious Spain won a further enclave and an enlarged Ceuta in the settlement. In 1884, Spain created a protectorate in the coastal areas of Morocco.
[[File:Louis Comfort Tiffany - Market day outside the walls of Tangiers, Morocco.jpg|thumb|left|[[Tangier]]'s population in 1956 included 40,000 Muslims, 31,000 Europeans and 15,000 Jews.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0019_0_19572.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501181723/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0019_0_19572.html |archive-date=1 May 2013 |title=Tangier(s) |encyclopedia=[[Jewish Virtual Library]] |access-date=30 December 2013}}</ref>]]
In 1904, France and Spain carved out zones of influence in Morocco. Recognition by the [[United Kingdom]] of France's [[sphere of influence]] provoked a strong reaction from the [[German Empire]]; and a crisis loomed in 1905. The matter was resolved at the [[Algeciras Conference]] in 1906. The [[Agadir Crisis]] of 1911 increased tensions between European powers. The 1912 [[Treaty of Fez]] made Morocco a [[protectorate]] of France, and triggered the [[1912 Fez riots]].<ref name="Hirschberg1981">{{cite book|author=Hirschberg, H. Z|title=A history of the Jews in North Africa: From the Ottoman conquests to the present time / edited by Eliezer Bashan and Robert Attal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=idEUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA319|year=1981|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-06295-5|page=318|access-date=20 June 2015|archive-date=14 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114120228/https://books.google.com/books?id=idEUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA319|url-status=live}}</ref> Spain continued to operate its coastal protectorate. By the same treaty, Spain assumed the role of [[protecting power]] over the northern coastal and southern [[Sahara]]n zones.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Furlong |first=Charles Wellington |author-link=Charles W. Furlong |year=1911 |title=The French Conquest Of Morocco: The Real Meaning Of The International Trouble |journal=[[World's Work|The World's Work: A History of Our Time]] |volume=XXII |pages=14988–14999 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rHAAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA14988 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114120230/https://books.google.com/books?id=rHAAAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA14988 |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Pacification.jpg|thumb|Map depicting the [[French conquest of Morocco]] from 1907 to 1934]]
Tens of thousands of colonists entered Morocco. Some bought up large amounts of rich agricultural land, while others organised the exploitation and modernisation of mines and harbours. Interest groups that formed among these elements continually pressured France to increase its control over Morocco – with some Moroccan tribes allying with the French against other competing tribes from early on in its conquest. The French colonial administrator, Governor general Marshal [[Hubert Lyautey]], sincerely admired Moroccan culture and succeeded in imposing a joint Moroccan-French administration, while creating a modern school system. Several divisions of Moroccan soldiers ([[Goumier]]s or regular troops and officers) served in the [[French army]] in both [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], and in the Spanish [[Francoism|Nationalist Army]] in the [[Spanish Civil War]] and after (''[[Regulares]]'').<ref>{{cite web |url-status=live |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-morocco-spain-war-idUSTRE50E0NT20090115 |title=Morocco tackles painful role in Spain's past |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817235436/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-morocco-spain-war-idUSTRE50E0NT20090115 |archive-date=17 August 2021 |website=Reuters |date=14 January 2009 |first1=Zakia |last1=Abdennebi }}</ref> The institution of [[slavery in Morocco|slavery]] was abolished in 1925.<ref>{{cite web |url-status=live |publisher=Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada |url=http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6ad6164.html |title=Morocco: Date of the abolishment of slavery in Morocco; whether descendants of ex-slaves are singled out in any way; and fate of the Palace household and grounds staff when King Mohamed V was in exile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203121733/http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6ad6164.html |archive-date=3 February 2014 |date=13 August 1999 |series=MAR32476.E |via=Refworld}}</ref>

Between 1921 and 1926, an [[Rif War|uprising]] in the [[Rif]] Mountains, led by [[Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi|Abd el-Krim]], led to the establishment of the [[Republic of the Rif]]. The Spanish used anti-civilian bombing raids and mustard gas to prevent the Rif republic from gaining independence.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wyrtzen |first=Jonathan |title=Worldmaking in the Long Great War: How Local and Colonial Struggles Shaped the Modern Middle East |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2022 |isbn=978-0-231-54657-7 |location=New York |pages=195 |oclc=1336403490 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gWdOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT195 |access-date=24 January 2024 |archive-date=16 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216052346/https://books.google.com/books?id=gWdOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT195 |url-status=live }}</ref> They lost more than 13,000 soldiers at [[Battle of Annual|Annual]] in July–August 1921 alone.<ref>Porch, Douglas; ''Spain's African Nightmare''; MHQ: Quarterly Journal of Military History; (2006); 18#2; pp. 28–37.</ref> The Riffi were eventually suppressed by 1927 by the Franco-Spanish military. The casualties on the Spanish-French side were 52,000 and from the Riffi 10,000 died.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wyrtzen |first=Jonathan |title=Worldmaking in the Long Great War: How Local and Colonial Struggles Shaped the Modern Middle East |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=2022 |isbn=978-0-231-54657-7 |location=New York |pages=198 |oclc=1336403490 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gWdOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT198 |access-date=24 January 2024 |archive-date=16 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216052345/https://books.google.com/books?id=gWdOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT198 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:وثيقة الاستقلال 11 يناير 1944.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Proclamation of Independence of Morocco]] of 1944]]
In 1943, the [[Istiqlal Party]] (Independence Party) was founded to press for independence, with discreet US support. Moroccan nationalists drew heavily on [[Revolution of the King and the People|transnational activist networks]] for lobbying to end colonial rule, primarily at the United Nations.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Stenner |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KLyXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT15 |title=Globalizing Morocco: Transnational Activism and the Postcolonial State |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-5036-0900-6 |location=Stanford, California |pages=198 |oclc=1082294927 |access-date=24 January 2024 |archive-date=16 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216052346/https://books.google.com/books?id=KLyXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT15 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Istiqlal Party subsequently provided most of the leadership for the nationalist movement.

[[File:Mohammed V Morocco 1957.lowres.jpeg|thumb|upright|King [[Mohammed V of Morocco|Mohammed V]] during a visit to the United States in 1957]]
France's exile of Sultan [[Mohammed V of Morocco|Mohammed V]] in 1953 to [[Madagascar]] and his replacement by the unpopular [[Mohammed Ben Aarafa]] sparked active opposition to the French and Spanish protectorates.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://en.yabiladi.com/articles/details/81277/mohammed-arafa-morocco-s-unpopular-sultan.html|title=Mohammed Ben Arafa, Morocco's unpopular sultan and the story of his unmarked grave|last=Babas|first=Latifa|newspaper=Yabiladi|date=July 19, 2019|accessdate=June 14, 2024}}</ref> The most notable violence occurred in [[Oujda]] where Moroccans attacked French and other European residents in the streets.<ref>{{Cite news|date=November 30, 1954|title=Quatre-vingt-seize Marocains poursuivis pour participation à la « tuerie d'Oujda », qui fit trente morts le 16 août 1953, passent en jugement |language=fr |newspaper=Le Monde|url=https://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1954/11/30/quatre-vingt-seize-marocains-poursuivis-pour-participation-a-la-tuerie-qui-fit-le-16-aout-1953-trente-morts-a-oujda-passent-en-jugement_2026822_1819218.html|accessdate=June 14, 2024}}</ref> France allowed Mohammed V to return in 1955, and the negotiations that led to Moroccan independence began the following year.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20091030183316/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761572952_9/Morocco.html Morocco (Page 9 of 9)]". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009.</ref> In March 1956 Morocco regained its independence from France as the Kingdom of Morocco. A month later Spain forsook its protectorate in Northern Morocco to the new state but kept its two coastal enclaves ([[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]]) on the Mediterranean coast which dated from earlier conquests, but over which Morocco still claims [[sovereignty]] to this day.

=== Post-independence ===
{{expand section|date=July 2023}}
Sultan Mohammed became King in 1957. Upon the death of Mohammed V, [[Hassan II of Morocco|Hassan II]] became King of Morocco on 3 March 1961. Morocco held its first [[Moroccan parliamentary election, 1963|general elections in 1963]]. However, Hassan declared a state of emergency and suspended parliament in 1965. In 1971 and 1972, there were two failed attempts to depose the king and establish a republic. A truth commission set up in 2005 to investigate human rights abuses during his reign confirmed nearly 10,000 cases, ranging from death in detention to forced exile. Some 592 people were recorded killed during Hassan's rule according to the truth commission.

In 1963, the [[Sand War]] was fought between Algerian and Moroccan troops over Moroccan claims to parts of Algerian territory. A formal peace agreement was signed in February 1964; however, relations remained strained between the two countries following the conflict.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Farsoun |first1=Karen |last2=Paul |first2=Jim |date=1976 |title=War in the Sahara: 1963 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3011767 |journal=MERIP Reports |issue=45 |pages=13–16 |doi=10.2307/3011767 |jstor=3011767 |issn=0047-7265 |access-date=13 August 2023 |archive-date=4 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204210150/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3011767 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Spanish [[enclave]] of [[Ifni]] in the south was returned to Morocco in 1969.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1969-01-05 |title=Spanish Return Ifni to Morocco |language=en |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1969/01/05/archives/spanish-return-ifni-to-morocco.html |access-date=2023-08-13 |archive-date=13 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230813010516/https://www.nytimes.com/1969/01/05/archives/spanish-return-ifni-to-morocco.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Polisario movement]] was formed in 1973, with the aim of establishing an independent state in the Spanish Sahara. On 6 November 1975, King Hassan asked for volunteers to cross into the Spanish Sahara. Some 350,000 civilians were reported as being involved in the "[[Green March]]".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14123260 |title=Morocco profile – Timeline |work=BBC News |date=19 September 2012 |access-date=9 January 2013 |archive-date=23 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121223035216/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14123260 |url-status=live }}</ref> A month later, Spain agreed to leave the Spanish Sahara, soon to become Western Sahara, and to transfer it to joint Moroccan-Mauritanian control, despite the objections and threats of military intervention by Algeria. Moroccan forces occupied the territory.<ref name="brit" />

Moroccan and Algerian troops [[Western Sahara War|soon clashed in Western Sahara]]. Morocco and Mauritania divided up Western Sahara. Fighting between the Moroccan military and Polisario forces continued for many years. The prolonged war was a considerable financial drain on Morocco. In 1983, Hassan cancelled planned elections amid political unrest and economic crisis. In 1984, Morocco left the Organisation of African Unity in protest at the [[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic|SADR]]'s admission to the body. Polisario claimed to have killed more than 5,000 Moroccan soldiers between 1982 and 1985.<ref>{{cite web |title=Western Sahara Short Mission Brief |url=https://sites.tufts.edu/wpf/files/2017/07/Western-Sahara-brief.pdf |website=sites.tufts.edu/ |access-date=14 September 2023 |archive-date=3 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003182513/https://sites.tufts.edu/wpf/files/2017/07/Western-Sahara-brief.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Algerian authorities have estimated the number of [[Sahrawi refugees]] in Algeria to be 165,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://groups.yahoo.com/|archive-url=https://archive.today/20010418142816/http://groups.yahoo.com/|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 April 2001|title=Yahoo! Groups|website=groups.yahoo.com}}</ref> Diplomatic relations with Algeria were restored in 1988. In 1991, a UN-monitored ceasefire began in Western Sahara, but the territory's status remains undecided and ceasefire violations are reported. The following decade saw much wrangling over a [[Houston Agreement|proposed referendum]] on the future of the territory but the deadlock was not broken.<ref>{{cite book|title=Self-Determination and Secession in International Law|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nZuzAwAAQBAJ&q=Houston+Agreement&pg=PA258|page=258| editor1-first=Christian | editor1-last=Walter| editor2-first= Antje von| editor2-last= Ungern-Sternberg| editor3-first= Kavus| editor3-last= Abushov|publisher=OUP Oxford |year=2014|isbn=9780191006913 }}</ref>

[[File:Redeployment of Polisario Forces 9-83.png|thumb|left|Map of the [[Western Sahara War]] (1975–1991)]]
Political reforms in the 1990s resulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature with Morocco's first opposition-led government coming to power. King Hassan II died in 1999 and was succeeded by his son, [[Mohammed VI of Morocco|Mohammed VI]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Morocco: Royal Succession and Other Developments |url=https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/RS20391.html |website=everycrsreport.com |access-date=15 September 2023 |archive-date=3 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003182514/https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/RS20391.html |url-status=live }}</ref> He is a cautious moderniser who has introduced some economic and social liberalisation.<ref>{{cite news |title=Morocco's king pardons satirist |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3376601.stm |work=BBC News |date=7 January 2004 |access-date=22 February 2011 |archive-date=11 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511212519/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3376601.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Mohammed VI paid a controversial visit to the Western Sahara in 2002.<ref>{{cite web |title=Morocco will not relinquish territory, King says |url=https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/news/2002/03/07/morocco-will-not-relinquish-territory-king-sayshttps://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/news/2002/03/07/morocco-will-not-relinquish-territory-king-says |access-date=7 March 2002 }}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Morocco unveiled an autonomy blueprint for Western Sahara to the United Nations in 2007.<ref>{{cite news |title=Chronology-Western Sahara -- a 50 year dispute |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL1118027 |work=Reuters |date=11 April 2007 |language=en |access-date=15 September 2023 |archive-date=3 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003182512/https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL1118027 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Polisario rejected the plan and put forward its own proposal.<ref>{{cite news |title=Africa's oldest territorial dispute rumbles on |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sahara-idUSL1610108120070416 |work=Reuters |date=16 April 2007 |language=en |access-date=15 September 2023 |archive-date=3 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003182512/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sahara-idUSL1610108120070416 |url-status=live }}</ref> Morocco and the Polisario Front held UN-sponsored talks in New York City but failed to come to any agreement.<ref>{{cite web |title=Factbox-Some facts about Western Sahara dispute |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/western-sahara/factbox-some-facts-about-western-sahara-dispute |website=reliefweb.int |date=7 November 2010 |access-date=14 September 2023 |archive-date=15 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130915234147/http://reliefweb.int/report/western-sahara/factbox-some-facts-about-western-sahara-dispute |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2010, security forces stormed a protest camp in the Western Sahara, triggering violent demonstrations in the regional capital [[El Aaiún]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Deadly clashes as Morocco breaks up Western Sahara camp |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-11710400 |work=BBC News |date=8 November 2010 |access-date=14 September 2023 |archive-date=3 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003190001/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-11710400 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:President Donald J. Trump and First Lady Melania Trump Visit France (44046554080).jpg|thumb|[[Mohammed VI of Morocco|Mohammed VI]] and other world leaders and representatives attend the [[Armistice Day centenary]] in November 2018.]]
In 2002, Morocco and Spain agreed to a US-brokered resolution over the disputed island of [[Perejil Island|Perejil]]. Spanish troops had taken the normally uninhabited island after Moroccan soldiers landed on it and set up tents and a flag.<ref>{{cite news |title=Spain withdraws after island deal - July 20, 2002 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/europe/07/20/morocco.spain/ |work=CNN |access-date=15 September 2023 |archive-date=3 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003182512/https://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/europe/07/20/morocco.spain/ |url-status=live }}</ref> There were renewed tensions in 2005, as dozens of African migrants stormed the borders of the Spanish enclaves of Melilla and Ceuta. In response, Spain deported dozens of the illegal migrants to Morocco from Melilla.<ref>{{cite news |title=Spain deports illegal enclave migrants |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2005/10/7/spain-deports-illegal-enclave-migrants |work=Al Jazeera |language=en |date=7 Oct 2005 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003182514/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2005/10/7/spain-deports-illegal-enclave-migrants |archive-date= Oct 3, 2023 }}</ref> In 2006, the Spanish Premier [[José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero|Zapatero]] visited Spanish enclaves. He was the first Spanish leader in 25 years to make an official visit to the territories.<ref>{{cite news |title=Spain PM visits troubled enclaves |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4665310.stm |date=31 January 2006 |access-date=14 September 2023 |archive-date=3 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003182512/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4665310.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The following year, Spanish King [[Juan Carlos I]] visited Ceuta and Melilla, further angering Morocco which demanded control of the enclaves.<ref>{{cite news |title=Morocco king condemns royal visit |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7082766.stm |date=7 November 2007 |access-date=14 September 2023 |archive-date=3 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003182552/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7082766.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

During the [[2011–2012 Moroccan protests]], thousands of people rallied in Rabat and other cities calling for political reform and a new constitution curbing the powers of the king. In July 2011, the King won a landslide victory in a [[2011 Moroccan constitutional referendum|referendum]] on a reformed constitution he had proposed to placate the [[Arab Spring]] protests.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2011-11-24 |title=Why has Morocco's king survived the Arab Spring? |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-15856989 |url-status=live |access-date=2023-08-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306045108/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-15856989 |archive-date=6 March 2014 }}</ref> In the first [[2011 Moroccan general election|general elections]] that followed, the moderate Islamist [[Justice and Development Party (Morocco)|Justice and Development Party]] won a plurality of seats, with [[Abdelilah Benkirane]] being designated as head of government per the new constitution.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-11-29 |title=Maroc: Mohammed VI nomme Abdelilah Benkirane chef du gouvernement |url=https://www.jeuneafrique.com/178337/politique/maroc-mohammed-vi-nomme-abdelilah-benkirane-premier-ministre/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121010554/https://www.jeuneafrique.com/178337/politique/maroc-mohammed-vi-nomme-abdelilah-benkirane-premier-ministre/ |archive-date=21 January 2016 |access-date=2023-08-13 |website=Jeune Afrique |language=fr-FR }}</ref> Despite the reforms made by Mohammed VI, demonstrators continued to call for deeper reforms. Hundreds took part in a trade union rally in Casablanca in May 2012. Participants accused the government of failing to deliver on reforms.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mass anti-government protest in Morocco |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2012/5/28/mass-anti-government-protest-in-morocco |work=Al Jazeera |language=en |date=28 May 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003182518/https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2012/5/28/mass-anti-government-protest-in-morocco |archive-date= Oct 3, 2023 }}</ref>

On 24 August 2021, neighbouring Algeria cut diplomatic relations with Morocco, accusing Morocco of supporting a separatist group and hostile actions against Algeria. Morocco called the decision unjustified. Foreign Minister [[Ramtane Lamamra]] accused Morocco of using [[Pegasus (spyware)|Pegasus spyware]] against its officials.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ahmed |first1=Hamid Ould |title=Algeria cuts diplomatic relations with Morocco |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/algeria-says-cutting-diplomatic-ties-with-morocco-2021-08-24/#:%7E:text=Speaking%20at%20a%20news%20conference,on%20the%20Western%20Sahara%20issue |work=Reuters |date=25 August 2021 |language=en |access-date=14 September 2023 |archive-date=7 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907051009/https://www.reuters.com/world/algeria-says-cutting-diplomatic-ties-with-morocco-2021-08-24/#:%7E:text=Speaking%20at%20a%20news%20conference,on%20the%20Western%20Sahara%20issue |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Amnesty International]] found that two phones of Sahraoui human rights defender [[Aminatou Haidar]] were infected in November 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-09 |title=Morocco/Western Sahara: Activist targeted with Pegasus spyware in recent months – new evidence |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2022/03/morocco-western-sahara-activist-nso-pegasus/ |access-date=2025-01-26 |website=Amnesty International |language=en}}</ref>

On 8 September 2023, a 6.8 magnitude [[2023 Al Haouz earthquake|earthquake]] hit Morocco killing more than 2,800 people and injuring thousands. The [[Epicenter|epicentre]] of the quake was around 70&nbsp;km southwest of city of Marrakech.<ref>{{cite web |title=Timeline: The Deadly September 8 Earthquake in Morocco |url=https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2023/09/357589/timeline-the-deadly-september-8-earthquake-in-morocco |website=moroccoworldnews.com |date=10 September 2023 |access-date=12 September 2023 |archive-date=12 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912063411/https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2023/09/357589/timeline-the-deadly-september-8-earthquake-in-morocco |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 10 December 2020, the [[Israel–Morocco normalization agreement|Israel–Morocco normalisation agreement]] was announced, and Morocco announced its intention to resume diplomatic relations with Israel.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=bin Taher |first1=Ahmed |last2=Barakat |first2=Mahmoud |date=December 20, 2020 |title=Morocco, Israel: 6 decades of secret ties, cooperation |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/morocco-israel-6-decades-of-secret-ties-cooperation/2083157 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216052347/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/morocco-israel-6-decades-of-secret-ties-cooperation/2083157 |archive-date=Feb 16, 2024 |website=Anadolu Ajansı}}</ref> Joint Declaration of the Kingdom of Morocco, the United States of America and the State of Israel was signed on 22 December 2020.<ref>{{cite web |date=22 December 2020 |title=Joint Declaration |url=https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Joint-Declaration-US-Morrocco-Israel.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216044129/https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Joint-Declaration-US-Morrocco-Israel.pdf |archive-date=Feb 16, 2024 |website=state.gov}}</ref> The agreement was met with criticism due to the October 2023 [[Gaza war]]. Moroccan Foreign Minister [[Nasser Bourita]] argues that maintaining relations does not signify endorsement of Israeli government actions.<ref>{{Cite news |last=El Atti |first=Basma |date=5 November 2024 |title=Morocco reasserts ties with Israel for first time since Gaza war |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/morocco-reasserts-ties-israel-first-time-gaza-war |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250115012227/https://www.newarab.com/news/morocco-reasserts-ties-israel-first-time-gaza-war |archive-date=15 January 2025 |access-date=2025-01-26 |work=The New Arab |language=en-EN |url-status=live }}</ref>