Editing Montenegro (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of Montenegro}}

===Antiquity===
{{main|Illyria|Illyricum (Roman province)|Dalmatia (Roman province)|Praevalitana}}

Modern-day Montenegro was part of [[Illyria]] and populated by the Indo-European-speaking [[Illyrians]].<ref name=Boardman629>John Boardman. [https://books.google.com/books?id=vXljf8JqmkoC&pg=PA629 The prehistory of the Balkans and the Middle East and the Aegean world]. Cambridge University Press, 1982. {{ISBN|978-0-521-22496-3}}, p. 629</ref><ref>Wilkes John. [https://books.google.com/books?hl=el&id=4Nv6SPRKqs8C The Illyrians]. Wiley-Blackwell, 1995, {{ISBN|978-0-631-19807-9}}, p. 92</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-10 |title=Blog #90: The Illyrians with Danijel Džino |url=https://peoplingthepast.com/2023/11/10/blog-90-the-illyrians-with-danijel-dzino/ |access-date=2025-04-20 |website=Peopling the Past |language=en}}</ref> The [[Illyrian kingdom]] was conquered by the [[Roman Republic]] in the [[Illyro-Roman Wars]] and the region was incorporated into the [[Illyricum (Roman province)|province of Illyricum]] (later [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]] and [[Praevalitana]]).<ref>Livy, The History of Rome, 45.26.11–15</ref><ref>Appian, the Foreign Wars, The Illyrian wars,   Book 10, The Illyrian Wars; Loeb Classical Library, Vol II, Books 8.2–12, Harvard University Press, 1912; {{ISBN|978-0674990043}} [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/home.html], 10.18–27</ref><ref>Cassius Dio, Roman History, Vol 6, Books 51–65 (Loeb Classical Library), Loeb, 1989; {{ISBN|978-0674990920}} [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/home.html]? 49.37–38</ref>

=== Arrival of the Slavs ===
{{Main|Duklja|Principality of Zeta|Tribes of Montenegro}}

Three principalities were located on the territory: [[Duklja]], roughly corresponding to the southern half, [[Travunia]], the west, and [[Principality of Serbia (early medieval)|Raška]], the north.<ref name=Luscombe /><ref name=Sedlar /> Duklja gained its independence from the Byzantine Roman Empire in 1042.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Papathanassiou |first=Manolis |title=Byzantine Battles: Battle of Bar |url=https://byzantium.gr/battle.php?byzbat=c11_09b |access-date=2025-04-20 |website=ΒΥΖΑΝΤΙΝΟΝ ΧΡΟΝΙΚΟΝ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=MONTENEGRINA - digitalna biblioteka crnogorske kulture i nasljedja |url=https://www.montenegrina.net/pages/pages_e/history/duklja_the_first_montenegrin_state_first_dinasty_Vojislavljevic.htm? |access-date=2025-04-20 |website=www.montenegrina.net}}</ref> Over the next few decades, it expanded its territory to neighbouring Rascia and Bosnia, and also became recognised as a kingdom. Its power started declining at the beginning of the 12th century. After King Bodin's death (in 1101 or 1108), civil wars ensued. Duklja reached its zenith under Vojislav's son, [[Mihailo I of Duklja|Mihailo]] (1046–1081), and his grandson [[Constantine Bodin]] (1081–1101).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.montenegro.org/duklja.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970116032145/http://www.montenegro.org/duklja.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 January 1997|title=Duklja, the first Montenegrin state|publisher=Montenegro.org|access-date=7 December 2012}}</ref>
[[File:Cytadela w obrębie murów miejskich w Kotorze 02.jpg|thumb|right|[[Fortifications of Kotor]]. Built between the 9th and 19th centuries, [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]].]]

As the nobility fought for the throne, the kingdom was weakened, and by 1186, the territory of modern-day Montenegro became part of the state ruled by [[Stefan Nemanja]] and was a part of various state formations ruled by the [[Nemanjić dynasty]] for the next two centuries. After the [[Serbian Empire]] collapsed in the second half of the 14th century, the most powerful Zetan family, the [[Balšić]]s, became sovereigns of Zeta.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://centruldestudiitransilvane.ro/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/3.1.-Premovic-co_-SuplimTR.1.2024.pdf |title=Zeta Under the Balšić Dynasty and the Ottoman Empire (1385–1421) |website=centruldestudiitransilvane.ro |access-date=2025-04-21 }}</ref>

By the 13th century, ''Zeta'' had replaced ''Duklja'' when referring to the realm. In the late 14th century, southern Montenegro ([[Lordship of Zeta|Zeta]]) came under the rule of the [[Balšić noble family]], then the [[Crnojević noble family]], and by the 15th century, Zeta was more often referred to as ''Crna Gora''.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

In 1421, Zeta was annexed to the [[Serbian Despotate]], but after 1455, another noble family from Zeta, the [[Crnojević]]s, became sovereign rulers of the country, making it the last free monarchy of the Balkans before it fell to the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] in 1496, and got annexed to the ''[[sanjak]]'' of [[Shkodër]]. For a short time, Montenegro existed as a separate autonomous ''sanjak'' in 1514–1528 ([[Sanjak of Montenegro]]). Also, [[Old Herzegovina]] region was part of [[Sanjak of Herzegovina]].{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

=== Early modern period ===
{{Main|Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro|Venetian Albania}}

From 1392, numerous parts of the territory were controlled by [[Republic of Venice]], including the city of [[Budva]], in that time known as "Budua". 
The Venetian territory was centred on the [[Bay of Kotor]], and the Republic introduced governors who meddled in Montenegrin politics.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Venita Albania |url=https://albanianstudies.weebly.com/venita-albania.html |access-date=2025-04-20 |website=My Albanian studies |language=en}}</ref> Venice controlled territories in present-day Montenegro until [[Fall of the Republic of Venice|its fall]] in 1797.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Schmitt |first=Oliver Jens |title=Das Venezianische Albanien (1392–1479) |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=2001 |isbn=978-3-486-56569-0}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=28 September 2007 |title=News ITALIA PRESS |url=http://www.newsitaliapress.it/interna.asp?sez=245&info=136207 |access-date=8 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928163000/http://www.newsitaliapress.it/interna.asp?sez=245&info=136207 |archive-date=28 September 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=City ... Budva History And Culture.html |url=https://www.montenegro.com/city/.../Budva_History_and_Culture.html |access-date=8 April 2021 |website=www.montenegro.com}}</ref>
Large portions fell under the control of the [[Ottoman Empire]] from 1496 to 1878. In the 16th century, Montenegro developed a unique form of autonomy within the Ottoman Empire that permitted Montenegrin clans freedom from certain restrictions. Nevertheless, the Montenegrins were disgruntled with Ottoman rule, and in the 17th century, repeatedly rebelled, which culminated in the defeat of the Ottomans in the [[Great Turkish War]] at the end of that century.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}
{{multiple image
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Montenegrin territories were controlled by warlike clans. Most clans had a chieftain (''knez''), who was not permitted to assume the title unless he proved to be as worthy a leader as his predecessor. An assembly of Montenegrin clans (''Zbor'') was held every year on 12 July in Cetinje, and any adult clansman could take part.<ref name="Visit Montenegro">{{cite web| title=The History of Cetinje| website=Visit Montenegro| url=https://www.visit-montenegro.com/destinations/cetinje/info/history| access-date=22 June 2021}}</ref> In 1515, Montenegro became a [[theocracy]] led by the [[Metropolitanate of Montenegro and the Littoral]], which flourished after the [[Petrović-Njegoš]] of Cetinje became the prince-bishop (whose title was "Vladika of Montenegro").{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

People from Montenegro in this historical period were described as Orthodox Serbs.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Crampton|first1=R. J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0IlVRg6M7jkC|title=Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century-- and After|date=1997|publisher=Psychology Press|pages=16|isbn=978-0-415-16422-1|language=en}}</ref>

=== Principality and Kingdom of Montenegro ===
{{Main|Principality of Montenegro|Kingdom of Montenegro}}

In 1858, one of the major Montenegrin victories over the Ottomans occurred at the [[Battle of Grahovac]]. [[Mirko Petrović Njegoš|Grand Duke Mirko Petrović]], elder brother of [[Knjaz Danilo]], led an army of 7,500 and defeated the numerically superior Ottomans with 15,000 troops at [[Grahovac, Montenegro|Grahovac]] on 1 May 1858. This forced the [[Great Powers]] to officially demarcate the borders between Montenegro and Ottoman Empire, ''de facto'' recognizing Montenegro's independence.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}
{{Multiple image
| caption_align     = center
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| image1            = Battle of Vučji Do, Orao, 1877.jpg
| caption1          = [[Battle of Vučji Do]], 1876, major battle of the [[Montenegrin–Ottoman War (1876–1878)|Montenegrin-Ottoman War]]
| image2            = Kralj i kraljica u krugu sire familije.jpg
| caption2          = [[Petrović-Njegoš dynasty|Royal family of Montenegro]]: King [[Nikola I Petrović-Njegoš|Nicholas I]] with his family. The [[Petrović-Njegoš dynasty]] ruled Montenegro continuously for almost 200 years.
}}
In the [[Battle of Vučji Do]] Montenegrins inflicted a major defeat on the Ottoman Army under Grand Vizier [[Ahmed Muhtar Pasha]]. In the aftermath of the Russian victory against the Ottoman Empire in the [[Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878]], the [[great powers of Europe|major powers]] restructured the map of the Balkan region. The Ottoman Empire recognised the independence of Montenegro in the [[Treaty of Berlin (1878)|Treaty of Berlin]] in 1878.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hertslet |first=Edward |url=https://dn790008.ca.archive.org/0/items/mapofeuropebytre04hert/mapofeuropebytre04hert.pdf |title=THE MAP OF EUROPE BY TREATYSHOWING THE VARIOUS POLITICAL AND TERRITORIAL CHANGES WHICH HAVE TAKEN PLACE SINCE THE GENERAL PEACE OF 1814. With Numerous Maps and Notes. Vol. IV. |date=1891 |publisher=HARRISON AND SONS, ST. MARTINS LANE |volume=4 |location=London |pages=Preface-vii}}</ref>

The first Montenegrin constitution (also known as the Danilo Code) was proclaimed in 1855. Under [[Nicholas I of Montenegro|Nicholas I]] (ruled 1860–1918), the [[principality]] was enlarged several times in the Montenegro-Turkish Wars and was recognised as independent in 1878. Nicholas I established diplomatic relations with the Ottoman Empire.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}} Minor border skirmishes excepted, diplomacy ushered in about 30 years of peace between the two states until the deposition of [[Abdul Hamid II]] in 1909.<ref name="ttk.gov.tr">Uğur Özcan, [http://www.ttk.gov.tr/index.php?Page=Yayinlar&KitapNo=989 II. Abdülhamid Dönemi Osmanlı-Karadağ Siyasi İlişkileri] (Political relations between the Ottoman Empire and Montenegro in the Abdul Hamid II era) Türk Tarih Kurumu, Ankara 2013. {{ISBN|9789751625274}}</ref>
[[File:Crna Gora - Oslobodjenje od strane okupacije 1711-1918.png|thumb|right|Expansion of Montenegro from 1711 to 1918 within present borders]]

The political skills of Abdul Hamid II and Nicholas I played a major role in the mutually amicable relations.<ref name="ttk.gov.tr" /> Modernization of the state followed, culminating with the draft of a Constitution in 1905. However, political rifts emerged between the reigning [[People's Party (Montenegro, 1906)|People's Party]], who supported the process of democratisation and union with Serbia, and those of the [[True People's Party]], who were monarchist.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

In 1910, Montenegro became [[Kingdom of Montenegro|a kingdom]], and as a result of the [[Balkan Wars]] of 1912–1913, a common border with Serbia was established, with [[Shkodër]] being awarded to [[Albania]], though the current capital city of Montenegro, Podgorica, was on the old border of Albania and Yugoslavia. Montenegro became one of the [[Allies of World War I|Allied Powers]] during World War I (1914–1918). In the [[Battle of Mojkovac]] fought in January 1916 between [[Austria-Hungary]] and the Kingdom of Montenegro, Montenegrins achieved a decisive victory even though they were outnumbered five to one. The Austro-Hungarians accepted military surrender on 25 January 1916.{{sfn|Pope|Wheal|Robbins|2003|p=431}} From 1916 to October 1918 Austria-Hungary occupied Montenegro. During the occupation, King Nicholas fled the country and established a [[government-in-exile]] in [[Bordeaux]].{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

=== Kingdom of Yugoslavia ===
{{Main|Kingdom of Yugoslavia}}
[[File:Locator map Zeta Banovina in Yugoslavia 1929-1939.svg|thumb|right|Locator map of [[Zeta Banovina]] in [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]]]]

In 1922, Montenegro formally became the [[Zeta Oblast|Oblast of Cetinje]] in the [[Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]], with the addition of the coastal areas around [[Budva]] and [[Bay of Kotor]]. In a further restructuring in 1929, it became a part of a larger [[Zeta Banate]] of the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]] that reached the [[Neretva]] River.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

Nicholas's grandson, the Serb King [[Alexander I of Yugoslavia|Alexander I]], dominated the Yugoslav government. [[Zeta Banovina]] was one of nine banovinas that formed the kingdom; it consisted of the present-day Montenegro and parts of Serbia, Croatia, and Bosnia.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

=== World War II and Socialist Yugoslavia ===
{{Main|Italian governorate of Montenegro|Socialist Republic of Montenegro}}

In April 1941, [[Nazi Germany]], the [[Kingdom of Italy]], and other Axis allies attacked and occupied the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Italian forces occupied Montenegro and established a puppet [[Italian governorate of Montenegro|Kingdom of Montenegro]].
{{Multiple image
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| image1            = Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-185-0116-27A, Bucht von Kotor (-), jugoslawische Schiffe.jpg
| caption1          = Captured ships of the [[Royal Yugoslav Navy|Yugoslav Navy]], [[Bay of Kotor]] 1941
| image2            = Osnivanje Osme crnogorske brigade.jpg
| caption2          = Great People's Assembly on the occasion of the establishment of the Eighth Montenegrin Brigade in [[Berane]], 25 February 1944.
| image3            = ŽCG 461 039 with IC Beograd - Bar at Lutovo.jpg
| caption3          = Construction of the [[Belgrade–Bar railway]] started in the 1950s and was completed in 1976. The line was opened in 1976 by the Yugoslavian President [[Josip Broz Tito]].
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In May, the Montenegrin branch of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia started preparations for an uprising planned for mid-July. The Communist Party and its Youth League organised 6,000 of its members into detachments prepared for [[guerrilla warfare]]. According to some historians, the first armed uprising in [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]]-occupied Europe happened on 13 July 1941 in Montenegro.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.b92.net/info/vesti/index.php?yyyy=2010&mm=07&dd=13&nav_category=167&nav_id=445290|title=Prema oceni istoričara, Trinaestojulski ustanak bio je prvi i najmasovniji oružani otpor u porobljenoj Evropi 1941. godine|date=13 July 2010|publisher=B92.net|language=sr|access-date=7 December 2012}}</ref>

Unexpectedly, the uprising took hold, and by 20 July, 32,000 men and women had joined the fight. Except for the coast and major towns (Podgorica, Cetinje, Pljevlja, and Nikšić), which were besieged, Montenegro was mostly liberated. In a month of fighting, the Italian army suffered 5,000 dead, wounded, and captured. The uprising lasted until mid-August, when it was suppressed by a counter-offensive of 67,000 Italian troops brought in from Albania. Faced with new and overwhelming Italian forces, many of the fighters laid down their arms and returned home. Nevertheless, intense guerrilla fighting lasted until December.

Fighters who remained under arms fractured into two groups. Most of them went on to join the Yugoslav Partisans, consisting of communists and those inclined towards active resistance; these included [[Arso Jovanović]], [[Sava Kovačević]], [[Svetozar Vukmanović-Tempo]], [[Milovan Đilas]], [[Peko Dapčević]], [[Vlado Dapčević]], [[Veljko Vlahović]], and [[Blažo Jovanović]]. Those loyal to the [[Karađorđević dynasty]] and opposing communism went on to become [[Chetniks]], and turned to collaboration with Italians against the Partisans.

War broke out between Partisans and Chetniks during the first half of 1942. Pressured by Italians and Chetniks, the core of the Montenegrin Partisans went to Serbia and Bosnia, where they joined with other Yugoslav Partisans. Fighting between Partisans and Chetniks continued through the war. Chetniks with Italian backing controlled most of the country from mid-1942 to April 1943. Montenegrin Chetniks received the status of "anti-communist militia" and received weapons, ammunition, food rations, and money from Italy. Most of them were moved to [[Mostar]], where they fought in the [[Battle of Neretva]] against the Partisans, but were dealt a heavy defeat.

During German operation Schwartz against the Partisans in May and June 1943, Germans disarmed many Chetniks without fighting, as they feared they would turn against them in case of an Allied invasion of the Balkans. After the capitulation of Italy in September 1943, Partisans managed to take hold of most of Montenegro for a brief time, but Montenegro was soon [[German occupied territory of Montenegro|occupied by German forces]], and fierce fighting continued during late 1943 and 1944. Montenegro was liberated by the Partisans in December 1944.

Montenegro became one of the six constituent republics of the communist [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] (SFRY). Its capital became Podgorica, renamed [[Titograd]] in honour of President [[Josip Broz Tito]]. After the war, the infrastructure of Yugoslavia was rebuilt, industrialization began, and the [[University of Montenegro]] was established. Greater autonomy was established until the [[Socialist Republic of Montenegro]] ratified a new constitution in 1974.<ref name="Roberts 1978 pp. 136–146">{{cite journal| last=Roberts| first=Adam| title=Yugoslavia: The Constitution and the Succession| journal=The World Today| publisher=Royal Institute of International Affairs| volume=34| issue=4| year=1978| issn=0043-9134| jstor=40395044| pages=136–146| url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/40395044| access-date=22 June 2021}}</ref><ref>[http://mojustav.rs/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Ustav-SFRJ-iz-1974.pdf Ustav Socijalističke Federativne : Republike Jugoslavije] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818185853/http://mojustav.rs/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Ustav-SFRJ-iz-1974.pdf |date=18 August 2021 }} (1974). Mojustav.rs. Retrieved 18 January 2021.</ref>

=== Montenegro within FR Yugoslavia ===
{{Main|Serbia and Montenegro|Republic of Montenegro (1992–2006)}}

After the formal dissolution of the SFRY in 1992, Montenegro remained part of a smaller [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] along with Serbia. In the [[Montenegrin independence referendum, 1992|referendum on remaining in Yugoslavia in 1992]], 96% of the votes cast were in favour of the federation with Serbia. The referendum was boycotted by opposition parties such as the [[Liberal Alliance of Montenegro]],<ref name=":1">Morrison (2009), p. 105</ref> the [[Social Democratic Party of Montenegro|Social Democratic]] and Socialist Parties,<ref>Morrison (2009), pp. 108–110</ref> as well as minority parties such as the [[Democratic League in Montenegro]],<ref>Morrison (2009), p. 126</ref> leading to a relatively low turnout of 66%.<ref name=":1" />
[[File:Former Yugoslavia durning war.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|left|Map of the [[Breakup of Yugoslavia|disintegration of Yugoslavia]] until 2008.]]

During the 1991–1995 [[Bosnian War]] and [[Croatian War]], Montenegrin police and military forces, under orders of president Momir Bulatovic<ref name="MD">{{cite news |author=Veseljko Koprivica |date=September 30, 2011 |title=''Zločini koji su se Đukanoviću isplatili'' |language=sr |agency=[[Monitor (magazine)|Monitor]] |url=http://www.monitor.co.me/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2922:zloini-koji-su-se-ukanoviu-isplatili&catid=2009:broj-1093&Itemid=3232 |access-date=February 11, 2019}}</ref> and Interior Minister [[Pavle Bulatovic]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pavlovic: The Siege of Dubrovnik |url=https://www.yorku.ca/soi/_Vol_5_1/_HTML/Pavlovic.html#fnB41 |access-date=2023-11-17 |website=www.yorku.ca}}</ref> joined Serbian troops in attacks on [[Dubrovnik]], Croatia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.croatiatraveller.com/southern_dalmatia/Dubrovnik/bombing.html|title=Bombing of Dubrovnik|publisher=Croatiatraveller.com|access-date=7 December 2012}}</ref> These operations, aimed at acquiring more territory, were characterised by large-scale violations of human rights.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/47/a47r121.htm|title=A/RES/47/121. The situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina|publisher=United Nations|access-date=7 December 2012}}</ref>

Montenegrin General [[Pavle Strugar]] was convicted for his part in the bombing of Dubrovnik.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yihr.org/uploads/newsletters/eng/28.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403105152/http://www.yihr.org/uploads/newsletters/eng/28.pdf|url-status=dead|title=YIHR.org|archive-date=3 April 2015}}</ref> Bosnian refugees were arrested by Montenegrin police and transported to Serb camps in [[Foča ethnic cleansing|Foča]], where they were subjected to systematic torture and executed.<ref>[http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/comexpert/ANX/VIII-03.htm#III.A.25 Annex VIII – part 3/10 Prison Camps]. ess.uwe.ac.uk {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020191517/http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/comexpert/ANX/VIII-03.htm#III.A.25|date=20 October 2013}}</ref>

In 1996, [[Milo Đukanović]]'s government severed ties between Montenegro and its partner Serbia, which was led by [[Slobodan Milošević]]. Montenegro formed its own [[economic policy]] and adopted the German [[Deutsche Mark]] as its currency and subsequently [[Montenegro and the euro|adopted the euro]], although not part of the [[Eurozone]]. Subsequent governments pursued pro-independence policies, and political tensions with Serbia simmered despite political changes in [[Belgrade]].

Targets in Montenegro were bombed by NATO forces during [[Operation Allied Force]] in 1999, although the extent of these attacks was limited in both time and area affected.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/331036.stm|title=Russia pushes peace plan|publisher=BBC|date=29 April 1999}}</ref>

In 2002, Serbia and Montenegro came to a new agreement for continued cooperation and entered into negotiations regarding the future status of the [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]. This resulted in the Belgrade Agreement, which saw the country's transformation into a more decentralised state union named [[Serbia and Montenegro]] in 2003. The Belgrade Agreement also contained a provision delaying any future referendum on the independence of Montenegro for at least three years.{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}

=== Independence ===
{{Main|Serbia and Montenegro|Montenegrin independence referendum, 2006}}
{{See also|2016 Montenegrin coup d'état attempt allegations|2019–20 Montenegrin crisis}}

[[File:Independent montenegro.jpg|thumb|left|Supporters of Montenegrin independence in June 2006 in [[Cetinje]]]]
[[File:Under Secretary Shannon Poses for a Photo With Montenegro's Prime Minister Markovic, Montenegro's Foreign Minister Darmanovic, and NATO Secretary-General Stoltenberg at a Ceremony in Washington (34734796140).jpg|thumb|left|Montenegro Foreign Minister Srdjan Darmanović presents a document to [[US]] Undersecretary of State for Political Affairs [[Thomas A. Shannon Jr.|Thomas Shannon]] and Montenegro Prime Minister [[Duško Marković]] during a ceremony at the [[State Department]] to accept Montenegro's instrument of accession to the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] ([[NATO]]), June 5, 2017.]]

The status of the union between Montenegro and Serbia was decided by a [[Montenegrin independence referendum, 2006|referendum on Montenegrin independence]] on 21 May 2006. A total of 419,240 votes were cast, representing 86.5% of the electorate; 230,661 votes (55.5%) were for independence and 185,002 votes (44.5%) were against.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/5007364.stm|title=Montenegro vote result confirmed|work=BBC News|date=23 May 2006|access-date=11 September 2010}}</ref> This narrowly surpassed the 55% threshold needed to validate the referendum under the rules set by the European Union. According to the electoral commission, the 55% threshold was passed by only 2,300 votes. Serbia, the member-states of the European Union, and the [[permanent members of the United Nations Security Council]] all [[diplomatic recognition|recognised]] Montenegro's independence.

The 2006 referendum was monitored by five international observer missions, headed by an [[OSCE]]/[[ODIHR]] team, and around 3,000 observers in total (including domestic observers from [[Center for Democracy and Technology|CDT]] (OSCE PA), the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE), the Congress of Local and Regional Authorities of the Council of Europe (CLRAE), and the European Parliament (EP) to form an International Referendum Observation Mission (IROM). The IROM—in its preliminary report—"assessed compliance of the referendum process with OSCE commitments, Council of Europe commitments, other international standards for democratic electoral processes, and domestic legislation." Furthermore, the report stated that the competitive pre-referendum environment was marked by an active and generally peaceful campaign and that "there were no reports of restrictions on fundamental civil and political rights".

On 3 June 2006, the Montenegrin Parliament declared the independence of Montenegro,<ref>{{cite news|title=Montenegro declares independence|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/5043462.stm|publisher=BBC News|date=4 June 2006|access-date=11 September 2010}}</ref> formally confirming the result of the referendum.

On 28 June 2006, Montenegro joined the [[United Nations]] as its 192nd member state.<ref>{{cite web|title=General Assembly Approves Admission of Montenegro to United Nations, Increasing Number of Member States to 192 {{!}} Meetings Coverage and Press Releases|url=https://www.un.org/press/en/2006/ga10479.doc.htm|website=www.un.org}}</ref>

Montenegro has been dominated since the breakup of Yugoslavia by [[Milo Đukanović]] (four-time prime minister and twice president), accused of having established an [[authoritarianism]] and [[clientelist]] regime, while maintaining close relations with [[organized crime]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2009-06-02|title=Djukanovic's Montenegro a family business – ICIJ|url=https://www.icij.org/investigations/tobacco-underground/djukanovics-montenegro-family-business/|access-date=|language=en-US}}</ref> The massive privatizations of the Đukanović era lead to the enrichment of him and oligarchs close to him. His brother Aleksandar, owner of Montenegro's first private bank, oversaw the privatizations, while his sister, Ana Kolarevic, has long controlled the judiciary. The clientelist networks of the ruling party dominated all segments of social life. A party card was required to start a business or obtain a position in the administration. This policy also contributed to the reinforcement of regional disparities and social inequalities. Unemployment climbs to 36.6 per cent in the northern part of the country, compared to 3.9 per cent in the coastal region, while a quarter of the population lives below the poverty line (2018).<ref>{{Cite web|last=Otašević|first=Ana|date=2021-04-01|title=Montenegro's ragged coalition|url=https://mondediplo.com/2021/04/06montenegro|access-date=|website=|language=en}}</ref>

The [[Law on the Status of the Descendants of the Petrović Njegoš Dynasty]] was passed by the Parliament of Montenegro on 12 July 2011. It rehabilitated the [[House of Petrović-Njegoš|Royal House of Montenegro]] and recognised limited symbolic roles within the constitutional framework of the republic.

In 2015, the investigative journalists' network [[OCCRP]] named Montenegro's long-time President and Prime Minister [[Milo Đukanović]] "Person of the Year in Organized Crime".<ref>"[https://www.occrp.org/personoftheyear/2015/ OCCRP announces 2015 Organized Crime and Corruption 'Person of the Year' Award]". [[Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project]].</ref> The extent of Đukanović's corruption led to street demonstrations and calls for his removal.<ref>"[http://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2017/01/05/the-balkans-corrupt-leaders-are-playing-nato-for-a-fool/ The Balkans' Corrupt Leaders are Playing NATO for a Fool]". ''[[Foreign Policy]]''. 5 January 2017.</ref><ref>"[http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2015/dec/1/montenegros-drive-for-nato-angers-russia-strains-a/ Montenegro invited to join NATO, a move sure to anger Russia, strain alliance's standards]". ''The Washington Times''. 1 December 2015.</ref>

In October 2016, for the day of the [[Montenegrin parliamentary election, 2016|parliamentary election]], a [[Montenegrin coup d'état attempt|coup d'état was prepared]] by a group of persons that included leaders of the Montenegrin opposition, Serbian nationals and Russian agents; the coup was prevented.<ref>{{cite news|first=Dusan|last=Stojanovic|date=31 October 2016|title=NATO, Russia to Hold Parallel Drills in the Balkans|url=http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/E/EU_BALKANS_MILITARY_DRILLS?SITE=AP&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT&CTIME=2016-10-31-12-14-05|agency=Associated Press|access-date=8 November 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107162123/http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/E/EU_BALKANS_MILITARY_DRILLS?SITE=AP&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT&CTIME=2016-10-31-12-14-05|archive-date=7 November 2016}}<br />{{cite news|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=Russians behind Montenegro coup attempt, says prosecutor|url=http://www.dw.com/en/russians-behind-montenegro-coup-attempt-says-prosecutor/a-36284714|publisher=Deutsche Welle|location=Germany|agency=AFP, Reuters, AP|date=6 November 2016|access-date=8 November 2016}}<br />{{cite news|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|date=6 November 2016|title=Montenegro Prosecutor: Russian Nationalists Behind Alleged Coup Attempt|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/montenegro-prosecutor-russian-nationalists-behind-alleged-coup-attempt-1478473032|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|location=United States|access-date=8 November 2016}}<br />{{cite news|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title='Russian nationalists' behind Montenegro PM assassination plot|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-37890683|publisher=BBC|location=United Kingdom|date=6 November 2016|access-date=8 November 2016}}</ref> In 2017, fourteen people, including two Russian nationals and two Montenegrin opposition leaders, [[Andrija Mandić]] and [[Milan Knežević (Montenegrin politician)|Milan Knežević]], were indicted for their alleged roles in the coup attempt on charges such as "preparing a conspiracy against the constitutional order and the security of Montenegro" and an "attempted terrorist act".<ref name="rferlcoup">[https://www.rferl.org/a/montenegro-coup-charges-confirmed/28535744.html Montenegrin Court Confirms Charges Against Alleged Coup Plotters] Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty/Radio Liberty, 8 June 2017.</ref>

=== Recent history ===

Montenegro formally [[Montenegro–NATO relations|became a member]] of [[NATO]] in June 2017, despite attempts by Russia to sabotage it,<ref name="murkypolitico">[https://www.politico.eu/article/montenegro-nato-milo-dukanovicmurky-coup-plot/ Indictment tells murky Montenegrin coup tale: Trial will hear claims of Russian involvement in plans to assassinate prime minister and stop Balkan country's NATO membership.] [[Politico Europe|Politico]], 23 May 2017.</ref> an event that triggered a promise of retaliatory actions from [[Government of Russia|Russia's government]].<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/may/25/montenegro-tensions-russia-joins-nato-member Montenegro finds itself at heart of tensions with Russia as it joins Nato: Alliance that bombed country only 18 years ago welcomes it as 29th member in move that has left its citizens divided] ''The Guardian'', 25 May 2017.</ref><ref>[http://tass.ru/politika/3682321 МИД РФ: ответ НАТО на предложения российских военных неконкретный и размытый] // "Расширение НАТО", [[TASS]], 6 October 2016.</ref><ref>[http://www.mid.ru/web/guest/kommentarii_predstavitelya/-/asset_publisher/MCZ7HQuMdqBY/content/id/2740071 Комментарий Департамента информации и печати МИД России в связи с голосованием в Скупщине Черногории по вопросу присоединения к НАТО] [[Russian Foreign Ministry]]{{prime}}s Statement, 28.04.17.</ref>
[[File:Protest in Kotor, Jan 2020.jpg|thumb|right|The controversial 2019 [[2019-2020 clerical protests in Montenegro#Background|law on religious communities]], introduced by the former ruling [[Democratic Party of Socialists of Montenegro|DPS]], proposed the transfer of the majority of religious objects and land owned by the largest religious organization in the country, the [[Serbian Orthodox Church]], to the Montenegrin state. It sparked a [[2019–2020 clerical protests in Montenegro|series of massive protests]], which led to the first [[2020 Montenegrin parliamentary election|government change]] in the country's history.]]

Montenegro has been in [[Accession of Montenegro to the European Union|negotiations]] with the EU since 2012.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Foy |first1=Henry |last2=Dunai |first2=Marton |last3=Hancock |first3=Alice |last4=Bounds |first4=Andy |last5=Dubois |first5=Laura |date=2024-12-18 |title=Why enlargement will overshadow the EU-western Balkan summit |url=https://www.ft.com/content/4c30bca2-59e3-43d6-aa00-33778ea2bf70 |access-date=2025-04-20 |work=Financial Times}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Montenegro |url=https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/montenegro/ |access-date=2025-04-20 |website=Consilium |language=en}}</ref> In 2018, the earlier goal of acceding by 2022<ref>[https://europeanwesternbalkans.com/2017/04/20/darmanovic-montenegro-becomes-eu-member-in-2022/ Darmanović: Montenegro becomes EU member in 2022] 20 April 2017. Retrieved 2 June 2017.</ref> was revised to 2025.<ref>[https://www.ft.com/content/e0774a28-0695-11e8-9650-9c0ad2d7c5b5 "EU to map out membership for 6 western Balkan states"], Michael Peel and Neil Buckley, ''Financial Times'', 1 February 2018</ref> As of 2024, all 33 negotiation chapters had been opened, with three provisionally closed.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-03-28 |title=Montenegro - European Commission |url=https://enlargement.ec.europa.eu/enlargement-policy/montenegro_en |access-date=2025-04-20 |website=enlargement.ec.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Montenegro Targets 2025 to be Ready for EU Accession |url=https://www.gov.me/clanak/montenegro-targets-2025-to-be-ready-for-eu-accession |access-date=2025-04-20 |website=Vlada Crne Gore}}</ref> Legislation is being passed bringing Montenegro law in line with EU membership requirements.<ref name=":5" />

In April 2018, [[Milo Djukanovic]], the leader of the ruling [[Democratic Party of Socialists]] (DPS), won Montenegro's [[2018 Montenegrin presidential election|presidential election]]. The veteran politician had served as Prime Minister six times and as president once before. He had dominated Montenegrin politics since 1991.<ref>{{cite news|title=Djukanovic Wins Montenegro's Presidential Election|url=https://balkaninsight.com/2018/04/15/montenegro-presidential-election-04-15-2018/|work=Balkan Insight|date=15 April 2018}}</ref>

[[2019 Montenegrin anti-corruption protests|Anti-corruption protests]] began in February 2019 against Đukanović and the Prime Minister [[Duško Marković]]-led [[Government of Montenegro#Marković Cabinet (2016-present)|government]] of the ruling [[Democratic Party of Socialists]] (DPS), which had been in power since 1991.<ref>{{cite news|title=Thousands march in Montenegro capital to demand president resign|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-montenegro-protests/thousands-march-in-montenegro-capital-to-demand-president-resign-idUSKCN1QX0OD|work=Reuters|date=16 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Montenegrin Antigovernment Protests Enter Eighth Week|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/montenegrin-antigovernment-protests-enter-eighth-week/29866285.html|work=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|date=7 April 2019}}</ref>

{{As of|pre=late|2019|12|post=,}} the newly adopted Law on Religion, which [[de jure]] transferred the ownership of church buildings and estates built before 1918 from the [[Serbian Orthodox Church]] to the Montenegrin state,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2019/12/26/world/europe/26reuters-montenegro-protest.html|title=Serbs Protest in Montenegro Ahead of Vote on Religious Law|agency=Reuters|date=26 December 2019|work=The New York Times|access-date=5 January 2020|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://balkaninsight.com/2019/06/14/montenegros-attack-on-church-property-will-create-lawless-society/|title=Montenegro's Attack on Church Property Will Create Lawless Society|date=14 June 2019|website=Balkan Insight|language=en-US|access-date=5 January 2020}}</ref> sparked large<ref>{{Citation|title=Masovna litija SPC u Podgorici|date=2 February 2020|url=https://www.slobodnaevropa.org/a/video-masovna-litija-u-podgorici/30413077.html|language=sh|access-date=10 February 2020}}</ref> [[2019–2020 clerical protests in Montenegro|protests]] and road blockages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/europe_montenegro-adopts-law-religious-rights-amid-protests-pro-serbs/6181703.html|title=Montenegro Adopts Law on Religious Rights Amid Protests by pro-Serbs|website=Voice of America|date=27 December 2019|language=en|access-date=5 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Montenegro adopts law on religion amid protests by pro-Serbs |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/12/27/montenegro-adopts-law-on-religion-amid-protests-by-pro-serbs |access-date=2025-04-20 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kajosevic |first=Samir |date=2019-12-27 |title=Montenegrin Parliament Adopts Religion Law Amid Furious Protests |url=https://balkaninsight.com/2019/12/27/montenegrin-parliament-adopts-religion-law-amid-furious-protests/? |access-date=2025-04-20 |website=Balkan Insight |language=en-US}}</ref> Seventeen opposition [[Democratic Front (Montenegro)|Democratic Front]] MPs were arrested prior to the voting for disrupting the vote.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-50923647|title=Montenegro's parliament approves religion law despite protests|date=27 December 2019|work=BBC|access-date=5 January 2020|language=en}}</ref> Demonstrations continued into March<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.politika.rs/scc/clanak/449003/Nastavljene-litije-sirom-Crne-Gore|title=Настављене литије широм Црне Горе|website=Politika Online|access-date=2 March 2020}}</ref> 2020 as peaceful protest walks, mostly organised by the Serbian Orthodox Church in the majority of Montenegrin municipalities.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2020/01/01/world/europe/ap-eu-montenegro-church.html|title=Several Thousand Protest Church Bill in Montenegro|agency=[[Associated Press]]|date=1 January 2020|work=The New York Times|access-date=5 January 2020|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102030703/https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2020/01/01/world/europe/ap-eu-montenegro-church.html|archive-date=2 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://rs.n1info.com/English/NEWS/a557775/Thousands-at-protest-headed-by-Bishop-Amfilohije-in-Montenegrin-capital.html|title=Thousands at protest headed by Bishop Amfilohije in Montenegrin capital|website=N1 Srbija|date=3 January 2020|language=sr-Latn|access-date=5 January 2020|archive-date=26 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126212421/http://rs.n1info.com/English/NEWS/a557775/Thousands-at-protest-headed-by-Bishop-Amfilohije-in-Montenegrin-capital.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://rs.n1info.com/English/NEWS/a558047/Thousands-will-regret-Vucic-s-absence-in-Montenegro.html|title='Thousands will regret Vucic's absence in Montenegro'|website=N1 Srbija|language=sr-Latn|access-date=5 January 2020|archive-date=26 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126212422/http://rs.n1info.com/English/NEWS/a558047/Thousands-will-regret-Vucic-s-absence-in-Montenegro.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In its political rights and civil liberties worldwide report in May 2020, [[Freedom House]] marked Montenegro as a [[hybrid regime]] rather than a democracy because of declining standards in governance, justice, elections, and media freedom.<ref>[https://www.vijesti.me/vijesti/politika/433690/kako-se-crna-gora-nasla-u-hibridnim-rezimima Kako se Crna Gora našla u "hibridnim režimima"] 
{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200708172129/https://www.vijesti.me/vijesti/politika/433690/kako-se-crna-gora-nasla-u-hibridnim-rezimima|date=8 July 2020 }}, [[Vijesti]]/[[Radio Free Europe]]</ref><ref>[https://freedomhouse.org/country/montenegro/freedom-world/2020 Freedom in the World—Montenegro Country Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707181417/https://freedomhouse.org/country/montenegro/freedom-world/2020|date=7 July 2020 }}, [[Freedom House]] (2020)</ref> For the first time in three decades, in the [[2020 Montenegrin parliamentary election|2020 parliamentary election]], the opposition won more votes than Đukanović's ruling party.<ref>{{cite news|title=How the use of ethnonationalism backfired in Montenegro|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2020/9/4/how-the-use-of-ethnonationalism-backfired-in-montenegro/|work=Al-Jazeera|date=4 September 2020}}</ref> In February 2022, that very same government was voted out in the first successful vote of no-confidence in the country's history.<ref>{{cite news|title=Izglasano nepovjerenje Vladi Zdravka Krivokapića|url=https://www.slobodnaevropa.org/a/crna-gora-vlada-krivokapic-skupstina-smjena/31685479.html/|work=Radio Slobodna Evropa|date=4 February 2022}}</ref>

In September 2022 an investigation linked six Russian diplomats with twenty eight Russian citizens holding temporary visas for Montenegro and two local citizens in a spy investigation. The diplomats were expelled.<ref>{{cite news |title=Six Russian Diplomats Expelled From Montenegro Amid Espionage Probe |newspaper=Radiofreeeurope/Radioliberty |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/montenegro-six-russian-diplomats-expelled-espionage/32059029.html |date=30 September 2022}}</ref> The Russian citizens were later banned from Montenegro and the two locals, one an ex-diplomat, face charges of illegal weapons, organising a criminal organisation and espionage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cigarettes smuggling in Montenegro, and strike on Russian spies ring |url=https://insightnews.media/cigarettes-smuggling-in-montenegro-and-strike-on-russian-spies-ring/ |date=13 February 2023}}</ref>

In March 2023, [[Jakov Milatovic]], a pro-western candidate of the [[Europe Now]] movement, won the presidential [[2023 Montenegrin presidential election|election]] run-off over incumbent Milo Djukanovic to succeed him as the incumbent [[president of Montenegro]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Milatovic declares victory in Montenegro presidential elections|url=https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20230402-former-minister-milatovic-claims-victory-in-montenegro-presidential-elections|work=France 24|date=2 April 2023|language=en}}</ref> The [[Europe Now]] movement won the highest number of seats in the [[2023 Montenegrin parliamentary election]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Montenegro's pro-EU party wins election, initial results show |url=https://www.euronews.com/2023/06/12/pro-eu-group-projected-to-win-montenegro-snap-parliamentary-election |work=euronews |date=12 June 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=12 June 2023 |title=Montenegro's pro-EU party wins election, initial results show |language=en |work=euronews |url=https://www.euronews.com/2023/06/12/pro-eu-group-projected-to-win-montenegro-snap-parliamentary-election}}</ref> On 31 October 2023,  [[Milojko Spajic]] of the Europe Now Movement became Montenegro's new prime minister, leading a coalition of  both pro-European and pro-Serb parties.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-10-31 |title=Montenegro appoints predominantly pro-EU new government |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/montenegro-votes-new-government-with-milojko-spajic-prime-minister-2023-10-31/ |access-date=2023-11-01}}</ref>

The [[Parliament of Montenegro]] in June 2024 adopted a resolution acknowledging the atrocities committed at the [[Jasenovac concentration camp]] during [[World War II]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://politiko.al/english/kosova/parlamenti-i-malit-te-zi-miraton-rezoluten-per-jasenovcin-kroacia-reagon--i510008 | title=The Montenegrin Parliament approves the resolution on Jasenovcin, Croatia reacts harshly }}</ref> This decision, spearheaded by pro-Serbian factions, is viewed as a response to Montenegro's earlier support for a [[UN]] resolution on the [[Srebrenica genocide]]. [[Croatia]] has criticized the move, accusing Montenegro of politicizing historical events and warned that it could harm [[Accession of Montenegro to the European Union|Montenegro's path to EU membership]] and bilateral relations between [[Croatia]] and Montenegro. The resolution has led to increased diplomatic tensions between the two nations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://balkaninsight.com/2024/05/15/croatia-protests-montenegrin-push-for-jasenovac-resolution/|title=Croatia Protests Montenegrin Push for Jasenovac Resolution|first=Borislav|last=Visnjic|date=15 May 2024|website=Balkan Insight}}</ref>