Editing Mongolia (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of Mongolia}}{{More sources|section|date=April 2025}}

=== Prehistory and antiquity ===
{{Main|Prehistoric Mongolia|Proto-Mongols}}

The ''[[Khoit Tsenkher Cave Rock Art|Khoit Tsenkher Cave]]''<ref name="Novgorodova">Eleanora Novgorodova, Archäologische Funde, Ausgrabungsstätten und Skulpturen, in ''Mongolen (catalogue)'', pp. 14–20</ref> in [[Khovd Province]] shows lively pink, brown, and red ochre paintings (dated to 20,000 years ago) of [[mammoths]], [[lynx]], [[bactrian camel]]s, and [[ostrich]]es, earning it the nickname "the [[Lascaux]] of Mongolia". The [[Venus figurines of Mal'ta]] (21,000 years ago) testify to the level of Upper Paleolithic art in northern Mongolia; Mal'ta is now part of Russia.
Neolithic agricultural settlements (c. 5500–3500 BC), such as those at Norovlin, Tamsagbulag, Bayanzag, and Rashaan Khad, predated the introduction of horse-riding nomadism, a pivotal event in the history of Mongolia which became the dominant culture. The [[Genetic history of East Asians|ethnogenesis]] of [[Mongolic peoples]] is largely linked with the expansion of [[Ancient Northeast Asian]]s. The Mongolian pastoralist lifestyle may in part be derived from the [[Western Steppe Herders]], but without much geneflow between these two groups, suggesting cultural transmission.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Population dynamics and the rise of empires in Inner Asia: Genome-wide analysis spanning 6,000 years in the eastern Eurasian Steppe gives insights to the formation of Mongolia's empires |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/11/201105183836.htm |access-date=4 June 2023 |website=ScienceDaily |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Xiaomin |last2=Sarengaowa |last3=He |first3=Guanglin |last4=Guo |first4=Jianxin |last5=Zhu |first5=Kongyang |last6=Ma |first6=Hao |last7=Zhao |first7=Jing |last8=Yang |first8=Meiqing |last9=Chen |first9=Jing |last10=Zhang |first10=Xianpeng |last11=Tao |first11=Le |last12=Liu |first12=Yilan |last13=Zhang |first13=Xiu-Fang |last14=Wang |first14=Chuan-Chao |date=2021 |title=Genomic Insights Into the Genetic Structure and Natural Selection of Mongolians |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |volume=12 |page=735786 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2021.735786 |issn=1664-8021 |pmc=8693022 |pmid=34956310 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Horse-riding nomadism has been documented by archeological evidence in Mongolia during the Copper and Bronze Age [[Afanasevo culture]] (3500–2500 BC);<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/nomadic-herders-left-strong-genetic-mark-europeans-and-asians|first=Ann|last=Gibbons|date=10 June 2015|title=Nomadic herders left a strong genetic mark on Europeans and Asians|journal=Science|publisher=AAAS|access-date=5 November 2022|archive-date=2 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902191050/https://www.science.org/content/article/nomadic-herders-left-strong-genetic-mark-europeans-and-asians|url-status=live}}</ref> this [[Indo-European migrations|Indo-European]] culture was active to the [[Khangai Mountains]] in Central Mongolia. The wheeled vehicles found in the burials of the Afanasevans have been dated to before 2200 BC.<ref>{{Cite book |last=David Christian |title=A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia |date=December 16, 1998 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-631-20814-3 |page=101}}</ref> Pastoral nomadism and metalworking became more developed with the later [[Okunev culture]] (2nd millennium BC), [[Andronovo culture]] (2300–1000 BC) and [[Karasuk culture]] (1500–300 BC), culminating with the Iron Age [[Xiongnu]] Empire in 209 BC. Monuments of the pre-Xiongnu Bronze Age include [[deer stone]]s, keregsur [[kurgans]], [[Slab Grave Culture|square slab tombs]], and rock paintings.

Although cultivation of crops has continued since the Neolithic, agriculture has always remained small in scale compared to pastoral nomadism. Agriculture may have first been introduced from the west or arose independently in the region. The population during the [[Copper Age]] has been described as mongoloid in the east of what is now Mongolia, and as europoid in the west.<ref name="Novgorodova" /> Tocharians ([[Yuezhi]]) and [[Scythians]] inhabited western Mongolia during the Bronze Age. The mummy of a Scythian warrior, which is believed to be about 2,500 years old, was a 30- to 40-year-old man with blond hair; it was found in [[Altai Mountains|the Altai]], Mongolia.<ref>{{Cite news |date=August 25, 2006 |title=Archeological Sensation-Ancient Mummy Found in Mongolia |work=Spiegel Online |publisher=Spiegel.de |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,433600,00.html |url-status=live |access-date=2010-05-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100522230511/http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,433600,00.html |archive-date=May 22, 2010 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> As equine nomadism was introduced into Mongolia, the political center of the [[Eurasian Steppe]] also shifted to Mongolia, where it remained until the 18th century. The intrusions of northern pastoralists (e.g. the Guifang, Shanrong, and [[Donghu people|Donghu]]) into China during the [[Shang dynasty]] (1600–1046 BC) and [[Zhou dynasty]] (1046–256 BC) presaged the age of [[nomadic empire]]s.

===Early states===
[[File:ZaamarTomb.jpg|thumb|right|7th-century artifacts found {{convert|180|km|0|abbr=on}} from Ulaanbaatar]]

Since the prehistoric times, Mongolia has been inhabited by nomads who, from time to time, formed great confederations that rose to power and prominence. Common institutions were the office of the [[Khan (title)|Khan]], the [[Kurultai]] (Supreme Council), left and right wings, imperial army ([[Keshig]]) and the decimal military system. The first of these empires, the [[Xiongnu]] of undetermined ethnicity, were brought together by [[Modu Shanyu]] to form a confederation in 209 BC. Soon they emerged as the greatest threat to the [[Qin dynasty]], forcing the latter to construct the [[Great Wall of China]]. It was guarded by up to almost 300,000 soldiers during Marshal [[Meng Tian]]'s tenure, as a means of defense against the destructive Xiongnu raids. The vast Xiongnu empire (209 BC–93 AD) was followed by the Mongolic [[Xianbei state|Xianbei empire]] (93–234 AD), which also ruled more than the entirety of present-day Mongolia. The Mongolic Rouran Khaganate (330–555), of [[Xianbei]] provenance was the first to use "Khagan" as an imperial title. It ruled a massive empire before being defeated by the [[Göktürks]] (555–745), an even larger empire.

The Göktürks laid siege to [[Panticapaeum]], present-day [[Kerch]], in 576. They were succeeded by the [[Uyghur Khaganate]] (745–840) who were defeated by the Kyrgyz. The Mongolic [[Khitan people|Khitans]], descendants of the Xianbei, ruled Mongolia during the Liao dynasty (907–1125), after which the [[Khamag Mongol]] (1125–1206) rose to prominence.

Lines 3–5 of the memorial inscription of [[Bilge Khagan]] (684–737) in central Mongolia summarizes the time of the [[Khagan]]s:
{{blockquote| In battles they subdued the nations of all four sides of the world and suppressed them. They made those who had heads bow their heads, and who had knees genuflect them. In the east up to the Kadyrkhan common people, in the west up to the Iron Gate they conquered... These Khagans were wise. These Khagans were great. Their servants were wise and great too. Officials were honest and direct with people. They ruled the nation this way. This way they held sway over them. When they died ambassadors from Bokuli Cholug (Baekje Korea), Tabgach (Tang China), Tibet (Tibetan Empire), [[Pannonian Avars|Avar]] (Avar Khaganate), Rome (Byzantine Empire), [[Yenisei Kirghiz|Kirgiz]], Uch-Kurykan, Otuz-Tatars, [[Khitan people|Khitans]], [[Kumo Xi|Tatabis]] came to the funerals. So many people came to mourn over the great Khagans. They were famous Khagans.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Memorial Complex of Bilge Khagan |url=http://bitig.org/?lang=e&mod=1&tid=1&oid=16&m=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203230249/http://www.bitig.org/?lang=e |archive-date=February 3, 2015 |access-date=January 1, 2015 |publisher=bitig.org |df=mdy-all}}</ref>}}

===Mongol empire to early 20th century===
{{Main|Mongol Empire|Mongolia under Yuan rule|Northern Yuan dynasty|Dzungar Khanate|Mongolia under Qing rule}}
{{See also|List of medieval Mongol tribes and clans|List of Mongol states|List of Mongol rulers}}
[[File:Mongol_Empire_map.gif|thumb|right|[[Mongol Empire]] expansion (1206–1294)]]

In the chaos of the late 12th century, a chieftain named Temüjin finally succeeded in uniting the Mongol tribes between [[Manchuria]] and the [[Altai Mountains]]. In 1206, he took the title [[Genghis Khan#Name and title|Genghis Khan]], and waged a series of military campaigns – renowned for their brutality and ferocity – sweeping through much of Asia, and forming the [[Mongol Empire]], the largest contiguous land empire in world history. Under his successors it stretched from present-day [[Poland]] in the west to [[Korea]] in the east, and from parts of [[Siberia]] in the north to the [[Gulf of Oman]] and [[Vietnam]] in the south, covering some {{convert|33000000|km2}},<ref name="EarthRule">{{Cite web |last=Bruce R. Gordon |title=To Rule the Earth… |url=http://www.hostkingdom.net/earthrul.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701103611/http://www.hostkingdom.net/earthrul.html |archive-date=July 1, 2007 |access-date=2013-06-28}}</ref> (22% of Earth's total land area) and had a population of over 100 million people (about a quarter of Earth's total population at the time). The emergence of [[Pax Mongolica]] also significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia during its height.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Guzman |first=Gregory G. |year=1988 |title=Were the barbarians a negative or positive factor in ancient and medieval history? |journal=The Historian |issue=50 |pages=568–570}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Thomas T. Allsen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0StLNcKQNUoC&pg=PA211 |title=Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia |date=March 25, 2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-60270-9 |page=211 |author-link=Thomas T. Allsen |access-date=2013-06-28 |df=mdy-all}}</ref>

After Genghis Khan's death, the empire was subdivided into four kingdoms or [[Khanate]]s. These eventually became quasi-independent after the [[Toluid Civil War]] (1260–1264), which broke out in a battle for power following [[Möngke Khan]]'s death in 1259. One of the khanates, the "Great Khaanate", consisting of the Mongol homeland and most of modern-day China, became known as the Yuan dynasty under [[Kublai Khan]], the grandson of Genghis Khan. He set up his capital in present-day Beijing. After more than a century of power, the Yuan dynasty was overthrown by the Ming dynasty in 1368, and the Yuan court fled to the north, thus becoming the [[Northern Yuan|Northern Yuan dynasty]]. As the Ming armies pursued the Mongols into their homeland, they successfully sacked and destroyed the Mongol capital [[Karakorum]] and other cities. Some of these attacks were repelled by the Mongols under [[Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara|Ayushridar]] and his general [[Köke Temür]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=《扩廓帖木儿传》[biography of Köke Temür] |publisher=[[History of Yuan]] |edition=卷一四一，列传第二八}}</ref>

After the expulsion of the Yuan rulers from [[China proper]], the Mongols continued to rule their homeland, known in historiography as the Northern Yuan dynasty. With the division of the Mongol tribes, it was subsequently also known as "The Forty and the Four" (Döčin dörben) among them.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Junko |first1=Miyawaki |title=The Birth of the Oyirad Khanship |journal=Central Asiatic Journal |date=1997 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=38–75 |jstor=41928088 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41928088 |access-date=15 February 2023 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116050322/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41928088 |url-status=live}}</ref> The next centuries were marked by violent power struggles among various factions, notably the Genghisids and the non-Genghisid [[Oirats]], as well as by several Ming invasions (such as the [[Yongle Emperor's campaigns against the Mongols|five expeditions led by the Yongle Emperor]]).

[[File:Genghis khan.jpg|left|thumb|273x273px|Genghis Khan, the first Mongol Emperor]]
In the early 16th century, [[Dayan Khan]] and his [[khatun]] [[Mandukhai]] reunited all Mongol groups under the Genghisids. In the mid-16th century, [[Altan Khan]] of the Tümed, a grandson of Dayan Khan – but not a hereditary or legitimate Khan – became powerful. He founded [[Hohhot]] in 1557. After he met with the [[3rd Dalai Lama|Dalai Lama]] in 1578, he ordered the introduction of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] to Mongolia. (It was the second time this had occurred.) Abtai Khan of the [[Khalkha Mongols|Khalkha]] converted to Buddhism and founded the [[Erdene Zuu Monastery|Erdene Zuu]] monastery in 1585. His grandson [[Zanabazar]] became the first [[Jebtsundamba Khutuktu|Jebtsundamba Khutughtu]] in 1640. Following the leaders, the entire Mongolian population embraced Buddhism. Each family kept scriptures and Buddha statues on an altar at the north side of their [[yurt]]. Mongolian nobles donated land, money and herders to the monasteries. As was typical in states with established religions, the top religious institutions, the monasteries, wielded significant temporal power in addition to spiritual power.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Alexander |first1=Berzin |title=History of Buddhism in Mongolia |url=https://studybuddhism.com/en/advanced-studies/history-culture/buddhism-in-mongolia/history-of-buddhism-in-mongolia |website=Study Buddhism |access-date=15 February 2023 |archive-date=15 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215024500/https://studybuddhism.com/en/advanced-studies/history-culture/buddhism-in-mongolia/history-of-buddhism-in-mongolia |url-status=live}}</ref>

The last Khagan of Mongols was [[Ligden Khan]] in the early 17th century. He came into conflicts with the [[Manchu people|Manchus]] over the looting of Chinese cities, and also alienated most Mongol tribes.<!--Why? --> He died in 1634. By 1636, most of the [[Inner Mongolia]]n tribes had submitted to the Manchus, who founded the [[Qing dynasty]]. The Khalkha eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under Manchu rule. After several [[Dzungar–Qing Wars]], the [[Dzungars]] (western Mongols or Oirats) were virtually annihilated during the Qing conquest of Dzungaria in 1757 and 1758.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Kazakhstan to c. 1700 ce |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/313790/Kazakhstan/214566/History#ref=ref598970 |access-date=2013-06-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212010855/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/313790/Kazakhstan/214566/History#ref=ref598970 |archive-date=December 12, 2013 |author=Edward Allworth |url-status=live |df=mdy-all}}</ref>

[[File:Altan Khan.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Altan Khan]] (1507–1582) founded the city of Hohhot, helped introduce Buddhism and originated the title of [[Dalai Lama]].]]
Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the 600,000 or more [[Dzungar genocide|Dzungar were killed]] by a combination of disease and warfare.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Michael Edmund Clarke |title=In the Eye of Power: China and Xinjiang from the Qing Conquest to the "New Great Game" for Central Asia, 1759 – 2004 |publisher=Griffith University |url=http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20061121.163131/public/02Whole.pdf |type=PhD |location=Brisbane |year=2004 |page=37 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410040826/http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20061121.163131/public/02Whole.pdf |archive-date=2008-04-10}}</ref> Outer Mongolia was given relative autonomy, being administered by the hereditary Genghisid khanates of Tusheet Khan, Setsen Khan, Zasagt Khan and Sain Noyon Khan. The [[Jebtsundamba Khutuktu]] of Mongolia had immense ''de facto'' authority. The Manchu forbade mass Chinese immigration into the area, which allowed the Mongols to keep their culture. The Oirats who migrated to the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|Volga steppes]] in Russia became known as [[Kalmyks]].

The main trade route during this period was the [[Siberian Route|Tea Road]] through Siberia; it had permanent stations located every {{convert|25|to|30|km|mi}}, each of which was staffed by 5–30 chosen families.

Until 1911, the Qing dynasty maintained control of Mongolia with a series of alliances and intermarriages, as well as military and economic measures. [[Amban]]s, Manchu "high officials", were installed in [[Ulaanbaatar|Khüree]], [[Uliastai]], and [[Khovd (city)|Khovd]], and the country was divided into numerous feudal and ecclesiastical fiefdoms (which also placed people in power with loyalty to the Qing). Over the course of the 19th century, the feudal lords attached more importance to representation and less importance to the responsibilities towards their subjects. The behavior of Mongolia's nobility, together with [[usury|usurious]] practices by Chinese traders and the collection of imperial taxes in silver instead of animals, resulted in widespread poverty among the nomads. By 1911 there were 700 large and small monasteries in Outer Mongolia; their 115,000 monks made up 21% of the population. Apart from the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, there were 13 other reincarnating high lamas, called 'seal-holding saints' (''tamgatai khutuktu''), in Outer Mongolia.

=== Modern history ===
{{Main|Mongolian Revolution of 1911|Bogd Khanate of Mongolia|Mongolian Revolution of 1921|Mongolian People's Republic|Mongolian Revolution of 1990|History of modern Mongolia}}
[[File:BogdKhan.jpg|thumb|upright|The eighth [[Jebtsundamba Khutuktu]], Bogd Khaan]]
[[File:Map-of-Unified-Mongolia-1917.jpg|thumb|Map of unified Mongolia in 1917]]

With the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia under the [[Bogd Khaan]] declared its independence. However, the newly established [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] considered Mongolia to be part of its own territory. [[Yuan Shikai]], the [[President of the Republic of China]], considered the new republic to be the [[Successor state|successor]] of the Qing. Bogd Khaan said that [[Qing dynasty in Inner Asia|both Mongolia and China]] had been administered by the Manchu during the Qing, and after the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, the contract of Mongolian submission to the Manchu had become invalid.<ref>Bawden, Charles (1968): ''The Modern History of Mongolia.'' Weidenfeld & Nicolson: 194–195</ref>

The area controlled by the Bogd Khaan was approximately that of the former [[Outer Mongolia]] during the Qing period. In 1919, after the [[October Revolution]] in Russia, Chinese troops led by warlord [[Xu Shuzheng]] occupied Mongolia. Warfare erupted on the northern border. As a result of the [[Russian Civil War]], the [[White movement|White]] Russian Lieutenant General [[Roman Ungern von Sternberg|Baron Ungern]] led his troops into Mongolia in October 1920, defeating the Chinese forces in [[Ulaanbaatar|Niislel Khüree]] (now Ulaanbaatar) in early February 1921 with Mongol support.

To eliminate the threat posed by Ungern, [[Russian SFSR|Bolshevik Russia]] decided to support the establishment of a communist Mongolian government and army. This Mongolian army took the [[Altanbulag, Selenge|Mongolian part]] of [[Kyakhta]] from Chinese forces on 18 March 1921, and on 6 July, Russian and Mongolian troops arrived in Khüree. Mongolia declared its independence again on 11 July 1921.<ref>Thomas E. Ewing, "Russia, China, and the Origins of the Mongolian People's Republic, 1911–1921: A Reappraisal", in: ''The Slavonic and East European Review'', Vol. 58, No. 3 (Jul. 1980), pp. 399, 414, 415, 417, 421</ref> As a result, Mongolia was closely aligned with the Soviet Union over the next seven decades.

==== Mongolian People's Republic ====
In 1924, after the [[Bogd Khaan]] died of [[laryngeal cancer]]<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Кузьмин, С.Л. |last2=[Kuzmin, S.L.] |last3=Оюунчимэг, Ж. |last4=[Oyunchimeg, J.] |title=Буддизм и революция в Монголии |trans-title=Buddhism and the revolution in Mongolia |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/54133527/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC-%D0%B8-%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F-%D0%B2-%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B8 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306164044/https://www.scribd.com/doc/54133527/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC-%D0%B8-%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F-%D0%B2-%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B8 |archive-date=March 6, 2016 |language=ru}}</ref> or, as some sources claim, at the hands of Russian spies,<ref>{{YouTube|XuB0b_dEZ5g|Догсомын Бодоо 1/2}} '''(Mongolian)'''</ref> the country's [[political system]] was changed. The [[Mongolian People's Republic]] was established. In 1928, [[Khorloogiin Choibalsan]] rose to power. The early leaders of the Mongolian People's Republic (1921–1952) included many with [[Pan-Mongolism|Pan-Mongolist]] ideals. However, changing global politics and increased Soviet pressure led to the decline of Pan-Mongol aspirations in the following period.

[[File:Horloogiyn Choybalsan.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Khorloogiin Choibalsan]] led Mongolia during the Stalinist era, and presided over an environment of intense political persecution.]]
[[Khorloogiin Choibalsan]] instituted collectivization of livestock, began the destruction of the Buddhist monasteries, and carried out [[Stalinist repressions in Mongolia|Stalinist purges]], which resulted in the murders of numerous monks and other leaders. In Mongolia during the 1920s, approximately one-third of the male population were monks. By the beginning of the 20th century, 750 monasteries were functioning in Mongolia and by the end of the 1930s almost all had been looted or razed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mongolia: The Bhudda and the Khan |url=http://orientmag.com/8-30.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818173717/http://www.orientmag.com/8-30.htm |archive-date=August 18, 2010 |access-date=2013-06-28 |publisher=Orient Magazine}}</ref>

In 1930, the Soviet Union stopped [[Buryats|Buryat]] migration to the [[Mongolian People's Republic]] to prevent Mongolian reunification. All leaders of Mongolia who did not fulfill Stalin's demands to perform [[Red Terror]] against Mongolians were executed, including [[Peljidiin Genden]] and [[Anandyn Amar]]. The [[Great Purge|Stalinist purges in Mongolia]], which began in 1937, killed more than 30,000 people. Under Stalinist influence in the [[Mongolian People's Republic]], an estimated 17,000 monks were killed, official figures show.<ref name="reuters">{{cite news |last=Thomas |first=Natalie |date=2018-06-04 |title=Young monks lead revival of Buddhism in Mongolia after years of repression. |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-mongolia-monks-idUKKCN1J104O |work=Reuters. |access-date=2023-07-06}}</ref> [[Khorloogiin Choibalsan|Choibalsan]], who led a dictatorship and organized [[Stalinist repressions in Mongolia|Stalinist purges in Mongolia]] between 1937 and 1939, died suspiciously in the [[Soviet Union]] in 1952. [[Comintern]] leader [[Bohumír Šmeral]] said, "People of Mongolia are not important, the land is important. Mongolian land is larger than England, France and Germany".<ref name="Mongolia 2003">''History of Mongolia,'' 2003, Volume 5. Mongolian Institute of History</ref>{{page needed|date=August 2021}}

[[File:MNRA soldiers 1939.jpg|right|thumb|Mongolian troops fight against the Japanese counterattack at [[Battles of Khalkhin Gol|Khalkhin Gol]], 1939.]]
After the [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria|Japanese invasion of neighboring Manchuria]] in 1931, Mongolia was threatened on this front. During the [[Battles of Khalkhin Gol|Soviet-Japanese Border War]] of 1939, the Soviet Union successfully defended Mongolia against Japanese expansionism. Mongolia fought against Japan during the [[Battles of Khalkhin Gol]] in 1939 and during the [[Soviet–Japanese War]] in August 1945 to liberate Inner Mongolia from Japan and [[Mengjiang]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Боржигон Хүсэл |date=18 January 2015 |title=1945 ОНД БНМАУ-ААС ХЯТАД УЛСАД ҮЗҮҮЛСЭН ТУСЛАМЖ |trans-title=Mongolian People's Republic supported the Chinese Anti-Japan War in 1945 |url=https://www.mongoliajol.info/index.php/JIS/article/download/394/415 |access-date=2 February 2019 |website=Mongolia Journals Online |archive-date=4 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804060721/https://www.mongoliajol.info/index.php/JIS/article/download/394/415 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Cold War ====
The February 1945 [[Yalta Conference]] provided for the Soviet Union's participation in the [[Pacific War]]. One of the Soviet conditions for its participation, put forward at Yalta, was that after the war Outer Mongolia would retain its independence. [[1945 Mongolian independence referendum|The referendum]] took place on 20 October 1945, with (according to official numbers) 100% of the electorate voting for independence.<ref>Nohlen, D, Grotz, F & Hartmann, C (2001) ''Elections in Asia: A data handbook, Volume II'', p491 {{ISBN|0-19-924959-8}}</ref>

After the establishment of the [[People's Republic of China]], both countries confirmed their mutual recognition on 6 October 1949. However, the [[Republic of China]] used its [[United Nations Security Council veto power|Security Council veto]] in 1955, to stop the admission of the [[Mongolian People's Republic]] to the United Nations on the grounds it recognized all of Mongolia —including Outer Mongolia— as part of China. This was the only time the [[Republic of China and the United Nations|Republic of China]] ever used its veto. Hence, and because of the repeated threats to veto by the ROC, Mongolia did not join the UN until 1961 when the Soviet Union agreed to lift its veto on the admission of [[Mauritania]] (and any other newly independent African state), in return for the admission of Mongolia. Faced with pressure from nearly all the other African countries, the ROC relented under protest. Mongolia and Mauritania were both admitted to the UN on 27 October 1961.<ref name="unveto">{{Cite web |script-title=zh:因常任理事国投反对票而未获通过的决议草案或修正案各段 |url=http://www.un.org/zh/sc/meetings/veto/pdf/a58_47_p2.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323133412/http://www.un.org/zh/sc/meetings/veto/pdf/a58_47_p2.pdf |archive-date=March 23, 2014 |publisher=聯合國 |language=zh |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="bbcveto">{{Cite news |title=The veto and how to use it |work=BBC News Online |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2828985.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726080318/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2828985.stm |archive-date=July 26, 2010 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="gpveto">{{Cite web |title=Changing Pattern in the Use of Veto in the Security Council |url=http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/102/32810.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508103405/http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/102/32810.html |archive-date=May 8, 2013 |publisher=Global Policy Forum |df=mdy-all}}</ref> (see [[China and the United Nations]])

[[File:Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal Berlin, VIII.jpg|thumb|150px|Mongolian Premier [[Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal]] was the longest-serving leader in the [[Eastern Bloc]], with over 44 years in office.]]
On 26 January 1952, [[Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal]] took power in Mongolia after the death of Choibalsan. Tsedenbal was the leading political figure in Mongolia for more than 30 years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/tsedenbals-mongolia-and-the-communist-aid-donors-reappraisal|title=Tsedenbal's Mongolia and the Communist Aid Donors: A Reappraisal &#124; Wilson Center|access-date=13 April 2021|archive-date=13 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413123041/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/tsedenbals-mongolia-and-the-communist-aid-donors-reappraisal|url-status=live}}</ref> While Tsedenbal was visiting Moscow in August 1984, his severe illness prompted the parliament to announce his retirement and replace him with [[Jambyn Batmönkh]].

==== Post-Cold War ====
The [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991 strongly influenced Mongolian politics and [[Youth in Mongolia|youth]]. Its people undertook the [[Mongolian Revolution of 1990|peaceful Democratic Revolution]] in [[Revolutions of 1989|January 1990]] and the introduction of a [[multi-party system]] and a market economy.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=350.org |last2=Hunter |first2=Daniel |date=2024-04-17 |title=Authoritarianism to Democracy: The Story of Mongolia |url=https://commonslibrary.org/authoritarianism-to-democracy-the-story-of-mongolia/ |access-date=2025-02-05 |website=The Commons Social Change Library |language=en-AU}}</ref> At the same time, the transformation of the former [[Marxist-Leninist]] [[Mongolian People's Party|Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party]] to the current social democratic [[Mongolian People's Party]] reshaped the country's political landscape.

A [[Constitution of Mongolia|new constitution]] was introduced in 1992, and the term "People's Republic" was dropped from the country's name.<ref>{{cite news|last=Kim|first=Hyun-bin|date=18 December 2024|url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2024/12/113_388575.html|title=Mongolia celebrates centennial of Mongolian People's Republic|work=The Korea Times|access-date=19 December 2024}}</ref> The [[Economy of Mongolia#Transition to a market economy|transition to a market economy]] was often rocky; during the early 1990s the country had to deal with high inflation and food shortages.<ref>{{Cite book |last=[[Morris Rossabi|Rossabi, Morris]] |url=https://archive.org/details/modernmongoliafr00ross |title=Modern Mongolia: From Khans to Commissars to Capitalists |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0520244191 |location=[[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] |pages=[https://archive.org/details/modernmongoliafr00ross/page/n81 57]–58, 143–144 |url-access=limited}}</ref> The first election victories for non-communist parties came in 1993 (presidential elections) and 1996 (parliamentary elections). China has supported Mongolia's application for membership in the [[Asia Cooperation Dialogue]] (ACD), [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] (APEC) and granting it observer status in the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2005-06-29 |title="Pan-Mongolism" and U.S.-China-Mongolia relations |url=http://www.jamestown.org/programs/chinabrief/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=3856&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=195&no_cache=1 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151227111904/http://www.jamestown.org/programs/chinabrief/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=3856&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=195&no_cache=1 |archive-date=December 27, 2015 |access-date=2013-04-07 |publisher=Jamestown Foundation |df=mdy-all}}</ref>