Editing Model (person) (section)

==Fashion modelling==
{{Redirect|Fashion model|the 1945 film|Fashion Model (film)}}

===History of fashion modelling===
====Early years====
In [[Late Middle Ages|14th-century Europe]], fashion had been displayed in miniature form to (often royal) clients by [[fashion doll]]s, before the clothes were made in human size.<ref>Tom Tierney:''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5HFtDQAAQBAJ&dq=Mme+Palmyre+%E2%80%8E&pg=PA17 Great Fashion Designs of the Victorian Era Paper Dolls in Full Color]''</ref>

Modelling as a profession was first established in 1853 by [[Charles Frederick Worth]], the "father of [[haute couture]]", when he asked his wife, Marie Vernet Worth, to model the potential clients for the clothes he designed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.modelworker.com/history.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071017020950/http://www.modelworker.com/history.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2007-10-17|title=modelworker.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Fabulous faces of fashion: A century of modelling|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/fashion/features/fabulous-faces-of-fashion-a--century-of-modelling-1678417.html|date=4 May 2009|author=Walker, Harriet|journal=The Independent|access-date=2017-09-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110528025946/http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/fashion/features/fabulous-faces-of-fashion-a--century-of-modelling-1678417.html|archive-date=2011-05-28|url-status=dead}}</ref> The term "house model" was coined to describe this type of work. Eventually, this became common practice for [[French fashion#Final 19th, the Belle époque and early 20th century|Parisian fashion houses]]. There were no standard physical measurement requirements for a model, and most designers would use women of varying sizes to demonstrate variety in their [[Fashion design|designs]].

The modelling profession expanded to photo modelling with the development of [[fashion photography]]. Models remained fairly anonymous, and relatively poorly paid, until the late 1940s, when the world's first three supermodels, [[Barbara Goalen]], [[Bettina Graziani]] and [[Lisa Fonssagrives]] began commanding very large sums. During the 1940s and 1950s, Graziani was the most photographed woman in France and the undisputed queen of couture, while Fonssagrives appeared on over 200 ''[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]'' covers; her name recognition led to the importance of ''Vogue'' in shaping the careers of fashion models. One of the most popular models during the 1940s was [[Jinx Falkenburg]], who was paid $25 per hour, a large sum at the time;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oldmagazinearticles.com/Fashion_1940s_Modeling |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110401102507/http://www.oldmagazinearticles.com/Fashion_1940s_Modeling |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-04-01 |title=fashion models 1940s, fashion modeling in 1940, Forties Fashion modeling agencies, first fashion modeling agency in New York, 1940s fashion models, John Powers modeling agency, girls of the John Roberts Powers modeling agency, Powers Girls Photographs, popular 1 |publisher=Oldmagazinearticles.com |access-date=2012-09-19 }}</ref> through the 1950s, [[Wilhelmina Cooper]], [[Jean Patchett]], [[Dovima]], [[Dorian Leigh]], [[Suzy Parker]], [[Evelyn Tripp]] and [[Carmen Dell'Orefice]] also dominated fashion.<ref>{{cite news |author=Cathy Horyn|date=4 February 2002 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/04/nyregion/jean-patchett-75-a-model-who-helped-define-the-50-s.html |title=Jean Patchett, 75, a Model Who Helped Define the 50s |newspaper=New York Times |access-date=19 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120829054807/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/04/nyregion/jean-patchett-75-a-model-who-helped-define-the-50-s.html |archive-date=29 August 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Dorothea Church]] was among the first black models in the industry to gain recognition in Paris. However, these models were unknown outside the fashion community. [[Wilhelmina Cooper]]'s measurements were 38"-24"-36" whereas [[Chanel Iman]]'s measurements are 32"-23"-33".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fashionmodeldirectory.com/models/Chanel_Iman |title=Chanel Iman – Fashion Model – Profile on FMD |publisher=Fashionmodeldirectory.com |access-date=2012-09-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120830212536/http://www.fashionmodeldirectory.com/models/chanel_iman/ |archive-date=2012-08-30 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1946, [[Ford Models]] was established by [[Eileen Ford|Eileen]] and [[Gerard W. Ford|Gerard Ford]] in New York, making it one of the oldest model agencies in the world.

====The 1960s and the beginning of the industry====
[[File:Astrid Andersen 01.jpg|thumb|alt=Models walking single file|Models on [[Runway (fashion)|runway]] at a [[fashion show]] ]]
In the 1960s, the modelling world established [[Modeling agency|modelling agencies]]. Throughout Europe, secretarial services acted as models' agents charging them weekly rates for their messages and bookings. For the most part, models were responsible for their own billing. In Germany, agents were not allowed to work for a percentage of a person's earnings, so they referred to themselves as secretaries. Except for a few models travelling to Paris or New York, travelling was relatively unheard of for a model. Most models only worked in one market due to different labour laws governing modelling in various countries. In the 1960s, Italy had many fashion houses and [[fashion magazines]] but desperately needed models. Italian agencies often coerced models to return to Italy without work visas by withholding their pay.<ref name="history">{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708041838/http://www.modelscomposites.com/history.htm|url=http://www.modelscomposites.com/history.htm|archive-date=8 July 2008|date=January 2007|title=A Brief History Of Modelling|author=Peter Marlowe|website=The Peter Marlowe Model Composite Archives}}</ref> They would also pay their models in cash, which models would have to hide from [[customs]] agents. It was not uncommon for models staying in hotels such as La Louisiana in [[Paris]] or the Arena in [[Milan]] to have their hotel rooms raided by the police looking for their work visas. It was rumoured that competing agencies were behind the raids. This led many agencies to form worldwide chains; for example, the [[Marilyn Agency]] has branches in Paris and New York.<ref name="history"/>

By the late 1960s, [[London]] was considered the best market in Europe due to its more organised and innovative approach to modelling. It was during this period that models began to become household names. Models such as [[Jean Shrimpton]], [[Tania Mallet]], [[Celia Hammond]], [[Twiggy]], and [[Penelope Tree]] dominated the London fashion scene and were well paid, unlike their predecessors.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://fashion.telegraph.co.uk/article/TMG9013918/David-Baileys-favourite-model-Jean-Shrimpton-was-the-Shrimp-who-sparked-the-Sixties.html |title=David Bailey's favourite model Jean Shrimpton was the Shrimp who sparked the Sixties – Telegraph |publisher=Fashion.telegraph.co.uk |access-date=2012-09-19 |location=London |first=Lisa |last=Armstrong |date=2012-01-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120827035540/http://fashion.telegraph.co.uk/article/TMG9013918/David-Baileys-favourite-model-Jean-Shrimpton-was-the-Shrimp-who-sparked-the-Sixties.html |archive-date=2012-08-27 |url-status=live }}</ref> Twiggy became The Face of '66 at the age of 16.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.twiggylawson.co.uk/fashion.html/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030211153058/http://www.twiggylawson.co.uk/fashion.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2003-02-11 |title=Twiggy – The Official Site |publisher=Twiggylawson.co.uk |date=1966-02-23 |access-date=2012-09-19 }}</ref> At this time, model agencies were not as restrictive about the models they represented, although it was uncommon for them to sign shorter models. Twiggy, who stood at {{convert|5|ft|6|in|cm}} with a 32" bust and had a boy's haircut, is credited with changing model ideals. At that time, she earned {{GBPConvert|80|year=1966|showdate=no}} an hour, while the average wage was {{GBPConvert|15|year=1966|showdate=no}} a week.

[[File:Jean Shrimpton (1965).jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Refer to caption|[[Jean Shrimpton]] in 1965]]
In 1967, seven of the top model agents in London formed the Association of London Model Agents. The formation of this association helped legitimise modelling and changed the fashion industry. Even with a more professional attitude towards modelling, models were still expected to have their hair and makeup done before they arrived at a shoot. Meanwhile, agencies took responsibility for a model's promotional materials and branding. That same year, former top fashion model [[Wilhelmina Cooper]] opened up her own fashion agency with her husband called [[Wilhelmina Models]]. By 1968, FM Agency and [[Models&nbsp;1]] were established and represented models in a similar way that agencies do today.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.models1.co.uk/contact.aspx?nav=23 |title=Europe's Leading Model Agency |publisher=Models 1 |access-date=2012-09-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020130053/http://www.models1.co.uk/contact.aspx?nav=23 |archive-date=2012-10-20 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fmmodelagency.com/contact.aspx?nav=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090928133313/http://www.fmmodelagency.com/contact.aspx?nav=2 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2009-09-28 |title=FM Agency – London – Contact |publisher=Fmmodelagency.com |access-date=2012-09-19 }}</ref> By the late 1960s, models were treated better and were making better wages. One of the innovators, Ford Models, was the first agency to advance models money they were owed and would often allow teen models, who did not live locally, to reside in their house, a precursor to model housing.

====The 1970s and 1980s====
The innovations of the 1960s flowed into the 1970s fashion scene. As a result of model industry associations and standards,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.models1.co.uk/contact.aspx?nav=24 |title=Europe's Leading Model Agency |publisher=Models&nbsp;1 |access-date=2012-09-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100914131034/http://www.models1.co.uk/contact.aspx?nav=24 |archive-date=2010-09-14 |url-status=live }}</ref> model agencies became more business minded, and more thought went into a model's promotional materials. By this time, agencies were starting to pay for a model's publicity.<ref name="history"/>  In the early 1970s, [[Scandinavia]] had many tall, leggy, [[blond]]e-haired, blue-eyed models and not enough clients. It was during this time that Ford Models pioneered scouting.<ref name="history"/> They would spend time working with agencies holding modeling contests. This was the precursor to the [[Ford Models Supermodel of the World]] competition, established in 1980. Ford also focused its attention on Brazil, which had a wide array of seemingly "exotic" models, which eventually led to the establishment of Ford Models Brazil. During this time, the ''[[Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue]]'' debuted. The magazine set the trend by photographing "bigger and healthier" California models,<ref name=Slate>{{cite web|url=http://www.slate.com/id/2113612/|title=The Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue: An intellectual history|author=Curtis, Bryan|access-date=11 November 2007|date=16 February 2005|publisher=Washington Post. Newsweek Interactive Co. LLC|work=Slate|archive-url=https://archive.today/20071127013208/http://slate.com/id/2113612/|archive-date=2007-11-27|url-status=live}}</ref> and printing their names by their photos, thus turning many of them into household names and establishing the issue as a hallmark of [[supermodel]] status.<ref name=Slate/>

[[File:2007 Beverly Johnson.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=Refer to caption|[[Beverly Johnson]] in 2007]]
The 1970s marked numerous milestones in fashion. [[Beverly Johnson]] was the first [[African Americans|black]] woman to appear on the cover of U.S. [[Vogue (magazine)|''Vogue'']] in 1974.<ref>Joy Sewing [http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/headline/features/6583995.html Beverly Johnson's got the right attitude] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826163234/http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/headline/features/6583995.html |date=2009-08-26 }} ''The Houston Chronicle'', Retrieved 23 August 2009</ref> Models, including [[Iman (model)|Iman]], [[Grace Jones]], [[Pat Cleveland]], [[Alva Chinn]], [[Donyale Luna]], [[Minah Bird]], [[Naomi Sims]], and [[Toukie Smith]] were some of the top black fashion models who paved the way for black women in fashion.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zartosht|first=Shahin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cV8XEAAAQBAJ&dq=Minah+Bird+1970s&pg=PA32|title=MODELING by Shahin Zartosht: A guide to becoming a Model|date=2021-01-27|publisher=Shahin Zartosht|isbn=979-8-7012-4573-8|language=en}}</ref> In 1975, [[Margaux Hemingway]] landed a then-unprecedented million-dollar contract as the face of [[Fabergé (cosmetics)|Fabergé]]'s Babe perfume and the same year appeared on the cover of ''Time'' magazine, labeled one of the "New Beauties", giving further name recognition to fashion models.<ref>{{cite news |last=Fonseca |first=Nicholas |url=https://ew.com/article/2001/06/29/papas-little-girl/ |title=Entertainment Weekly: ''Papa's Little Girl'' |publisher=Ew.com |date=29 June 2001 |access-date=7 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100106020603/http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,256227,00.html |archive-date=2010-01-06 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Many of the world's most prominent modeling agencies were established in the 1970s and early 1980s. These agencies created the standard by which agencies now run. In 1974, Nevs Models was established in London with only a men's board, the first of its kind. Elite Models was founded in Paris in 1975, as well as Friday's Models in [[Japan]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fridayfarm.net/about_us.html |title=About Us |publisher=Fridayfarm.net |access-date=2012-09-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120908041728/http://www.fridayfarm.net/about_us.html |archive-date=2012-09-08 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.elitemodelsindia.com/index.asp |title=Elite Model Management India Pvt. Ltd |publisher=Elitemodelsindia.com |access-date=2012-09-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120928024650/http://www.elitemodelsindia.com/index.asp |archive-date=2012-09-28 |url-status=live }}</ref> The next year Cal-Carries was established in [[Singapore]], the first of a chain of agencies in Asia. In 1977, Select Model Management and Why Not Models in Milan opened its doors. By the 1980s, agencies such as Premier Model Management, Storm Models, Mikas, Marilyn, and Metropolitan Models had been established.
[[File:NaomiCampbell.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Naomi Campbell]], one of the most famous [[supermodel]]s]]

In October 1981, ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' cited [[Shelley Hack]], Lauren Hutton and Iman for [[Revlon]], Margaux Hemingway for [[Faberge (cosmetics)|Fabergé]], [[Karen Graham]] for [[Estée Lauder Companies|Estée Lauder]], [[Cristina Ferrare]] for [[Max Factor]], and Cheryl Tiegs for [[CoverGirl]] by proclaiming them the "million dollar faces" of the beauty industry. These models negotiated previously unheard-of lucrative and exclusive deals with giant cosmetics companies, were instantly recognizable, and their names became well known to the public.<ref>Best–Selling Beauties, ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' October 1981, page 120</ref>

By the 1980s, most models could make modeling a full-time career. [[Patti Hansen]], one of the top earning models in 1980, earned $200 an hour for print and $2,000 for television plus [[Residual (entertainment industry)|residuals]]; it was estimated that she earned about $300,000 a year in 1980 (equivalent to ${{Format price|{{Inflation|US-GDP|300000|1980}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US-GDP}}).<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Clurman |first=Shirley |url=http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20075859,00.html |title=Who Is Patti Hansen? Just the Successor to Tiegs and Fawcett, or So Says Scavullo |magazine=[[People (magazine)|People]] |date=1980-02-18 |access-date=2012-09-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120213307/http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20075859,00.html |archive-date=2012-11-20 }}</ref> It was common for models to travel abroad and work throughout Europe. As modeling became global, numerous agencies began to think globally. In 1980, Ford Models, the innovator of scouting, introduced the [[Ford Models Supermodel of the World]] contest.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.supermodeloftheworld.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001206212100/http://www.supermodeloftheworld.com/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=2000-12-06 |title=Ford Models Supermodel of the World |publisher=Supermodeloftheworld.com |access-date=2012-09-19 }}</ref> That same year, John Casablancas opened [[Elite Models]] in New York. In 1981, cosmetics companies began contracting top models to lucrative [[Testimonial|endorsement deals]]. By 1983, Elite had developed its own contest, the Elite Model Look competition. In New York, during the 1980s there were so-called "model wars" in which the Ford and Elite agencies fought over models and campaigns. Models were jumping back and forth between agencies such Elite, Wilhelmina, and Ford.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Rayl |first=Salley |url=http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20077110,00.html |title=The Fashion World Is Rocked by Model Wars, Part Two: the Ford Empire Strikes Back |magazine=[[People (magazine)|People]] |access-date=2012-09-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120212730/http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20077110,00.html |archive-date=2012-11-20 |url-status=live }}</ref> In New York, the late 1980s trend was the boyish look in which models had short cropped hair and looked [[androgynous]]. In Europe, the trend was the exact opposite. During this time, many American models who were considered more feminine-looking moved abroad.<ref>{{cite web |author=Like |url=http://vimeo.com/13134831 |title=Kitchen Table Conversation with Cindy Morris and Roxan Gould on Vimeo |publisher=Vimeo.com |date=2010-07-06 |access-date=2012-09-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513115807/http://vimeo.com/13134831 |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live }}</ref> By the mid-1980s, big hair was made popular by some musical groups, and the boyish look was out. The [[hourglass figure]], a fashionable trend from the late 1940s to the early 1960s, has made a comeback.

====1990s====
[[File:Kate moss.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Kate Moss wearing sunglasses & a black jacket|[[Kate Moss]], part of the [[heroin chic]] trend]]
The high fashion models of the late 1980s dominated the early 1990s. In 1990, [[Linda Evangelista]] famously said to ''Vogue'', "we don't wake up for less than $10,000 a day". Evangelista and her contemporaries, [[Naomi Campbell]], [[Cindy Crawford]], [[Christy Turlington]], [[Tatjana Patitz]], [[Stephanie Seymour]], and [[Yasmeen Ghauri]] became arguably the most recognisable models in the world, earning the moniker of "[[supermodel]]", and were boosted to global recognition and new heights of wealth for the industry.<ref>''Citations'':
* {{cite book|last1=Harold Koda|first1=Kohle Yohannan|title=The Model As Muse: Embodying Fashion|date=2009|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York|location=New York|isbn=978-1-58839-312-8|page=134|edition=First|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/the_model_as_muse_embodying_fashion|access-date=3 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808204545/http://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/The_Model_as_Muse_Embodying_Fashion|archive-date=2016-08-08|url-status=live}}
* {{cite web|last1=Callahan|first1=Susannah|title=Super models class of 1990 back in vogue|url=https://nypost.com/2013/08/04/super-models-class-of-1990-back-in-vogue/|website=New York Post (www.nypost.com)|publisher=NYP HOLDINGS, INC|access-date=4 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131221144748/http://nypost.com/2013/08/04/super-models-class-of-1990-back-in-vogue/|archive-date=2013-12-21|url-status=live|date=2013-08-04}}
* {{cite web|title=Supermodel Status: A Brief History Of The Supermodel|url=http://www.fashiongonerogue.com/supermodel-history-timeline/|website=Fashion Gone Rogue (www.fashiongonerogue.com)|publisher=Fashion Gone Rogue|access-date=14 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714123942/http://www.fashiongonerogue.com/supermodel-history-timeline/|archive-date=2015-07-14|url-status=live|date=2015-07-14}}
* {{cite web|last1=Brown|first1=Laura|title=Classic Lindbergh|url=http://www.harpersbazaar.com/fashion/trends/a372/classic-lindbergh-0409/|website=Harper's Bazaar (www.harpersbazaar.com)|publisher=Brant Publishing|access-date=3 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160718164956/http://www.harpersbazaar.com/fashion/trends/a372/classic-lindbergh-0409/|archive-date=2016-07-18|url-status=live|date=2009-03-23}}</ref> In 1991, Turlington signed a contract with [[Maybelline]] that paid her $800,000 for twelve days' work each year.

By the mid‑1990s, the new "[[heroin chic]]" trend became popular amongst New York and London editorial clients. [[Kate Moss]] became its poster child through her ads for [[Calvin Klein]]. With the popularity of lingerie retailer [[Victoria's Secret]], and the ''[[Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue]]'', there was a need for healthier-looking{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} supermodels such as [[Tyra Banks]] and [[Heidi Klum]] to meet commercial modelling demand. The mid‑1990s also saw many Asian countries establishing modelling agencies.

By the late 1990s, the heroin chic era had run its course. Teen-inspired clothing infiltrated mainstream fashion, teen [[pop music]] was on the rise, and artists such as [[Britney Spears]], [[Aaliyah]] and [[Christina Aguilera]] popularised [[Artificial leather|pleather]] and bare midriffs. As fashion changed to a more youthful [[Demography|demographic]], the models who rose to fame had to be sexier for the digital age. Following [[Gisele Bündchen]]'s breakthrough, a wave of [[Brazil]]ian models including [[Adriana Lima]] and [[Alessandra Ambrosio]] rose to fame on runways and became popular in commercial modelling throughout the 2000s. Some have tied this increase in Brazilian models to the trend of magazines featuring celebrities instead of models on their covers.<ref name="um">''Death of the Supermodels'' by C. L. Johnson, ''Urban Models'' 21 October 2002 [http://www.urbanmodels.co.uk/modeling.php?page=supermodels online] retrieved 13 July 2006  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060715210541/http://www.urbanmodels.co.uk/modeling.php?page=supermodels |date=15 July 2006 }}</ref>

====2000s and since====
{{See also|Size zero}}
[[File:Carlson Twins.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Two muscular men wearing unbuttoned shirts|The identical [[Carlson Twins]] in 2006]]
In the late 2000s, the Brazilians fell out of favour on the runways. Editorial clients were favouring models with a china-doll or alien look to them, such as [[Gemma Ward]] and [[Lily Cole]]. During the 2000s, Ford Models and [[NEXT Model Management]] were engaged in a legal battle, with each agency alleging that the other was stealing its models.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vogue.co.uk/news/2010/05/24/model-agency-wars-next-vs-ford |title=Model agency wars Next vs Ford (Vogue.com UK) |publisher=Vogue.co.uk |date=2010-05-24 |access-date=2012-09-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110111653/http://www.vogue.co.uk/news/2010/05/24/model-agency-wars-next-vs-ford |archive-date=2012-11-10 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Gemma Ward.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=Genna Ward wearing a red hat and dress|[[Gemma Ward]], an Australian model]]
However, the most significant controversy of the 2000s was the health of high-fashion models participating in fashion week. While the health of models had been a concern since the 1970s, there were several high-profile news stories surrounding the deaths of young fashion models due to [[eating disorder]]s and [[drug abuse]]. The [[British Fashion Council]] subsequently asked designers to sign a contract stating they would not use models under the age of sixteen.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.marieclaire.co.uk/news/fashion/160449/underage-models-banned-at-london-fashion-week.html |title=Fashion news: Underage models banned at London Fashion Week |magazine=Marie Claire |access-date=2012-09-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121115194925/http://www.marieclaire.co.uk/news/fashion/160449/underage-models-banned-at-london-fashion-week.html |archive-date=2012-11-15 |url-status=live }}</ref> On March 3, 2012, ''Vogue'' banned models under the age of sixteen as well as models who appeared to have an eating disorder.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://today.msnbc.msn.com/id/47286154/ns/today-style/t/vogue-bans-models-who-are-too-skinny-underage/#.UELGL1tQfwk |title=Vogue bans models who are too skinny, underage - style - TODAY.com |publisher=[[MSNBC]] |access-date=2012-09-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004234251/http://today.msnbc.msn.com/id/47286154/ns/today-style/t/vogue-bans-models-who-are-too-skinny-underage/#.UELGL1tQfwk |archive-date=2012-10-04 }}</ref> Similarly, other countries placed bans on unhealthy, and underage models, including [[Spain]], [[Italy]], [[Israel]] and [[France]], which all enacted a minimum [[body mass index]] (BMI) requirement. The French law also requires digitally altered pictures of models to be identified as such.<ref>{{Cite web |last=TFL |date=2020-10-12 |title=How Have 'Model Health' Laws Actually Impacted the Fashion Industry? |url=https://www.thefashionlaw.com/how-have-fashions-model-laws-impacted-the-fashion-industry/ |access-date=2024-09-08 |website=The Fashion Law |language=en}}</ref>

In 2013, New York toughened its child labour law protections for models under the age of eighteen by passing New York Senate Bill No. 5486, which gives underage models the same labour protections afforded to child actors.  Key new protections included the following: underage models are not to work before 5:00 pm or after 10:00 pm on school nights, nor were they to work later than 12:30 am on non-school nights; the models may not return to work less than twelve hours after they leave; a pediatric nurse must be on-site; an adult chaperone must accompany models under sixteen; parents or guardians of underage models must create a trust fund account into which employers will transfer a minimum of 15% of the [[child model]]'s gross earnings; and employers must set aside time and a dedicated space for educational instruction.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Darwell|first=Robert A.|author2=Theodore C. Max |author3=Edwin Komen |author4=James A. Mercer III|title=The New Catwalk Experience: New York Tightens Laws for Underage Models|journal=The National Law Review|date=October 29, 2013|url=http://www.natlawreview.com/article/new-catwalk-experience-new-york-tightens-laws-underage-models|access-date=2013-11-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030061736/http://www.natlawreview.com/article/new-catwalk-experience-new-york-tightens-laws-underage-models|archive-date=2013-10-30|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Runway modelling===
{{Main|Fashion show#Catwalk|Fashion week}}
Catwalk or runway models, also called live models, display clothes from fashion designers, fashion media, and consumers. During runway shows, models have to constantly change clothes and makeup. Models walk, turn, and stand to demonstrate a garment's key features. Models also go to interviews (called "go and sees") to present their portfolios.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rusu|first=M|title=Interview with Catwalk Model Rusu|url=http://expatriatesmagazine.com/index.php/publication/issue-1/contents/item/163-interview-with-monica-rusu-expat-model|work=Expatriates Magazine|location=Paris|page=33|format=Printed Publication|date=April 2013|access-date=2013-05-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019160427/http://expatriatesmagazine.com/index.php/publication/issue-1/contents/item/163-interview-with-monica-rusu-expat-model|archive-date=2013-10-19|url-status=live}}</ref> A runway model can also work in other areas, such as department store fashion shows, and the most successful models sometimes create their own product lines or go into acting.<ref name="modelingbook1">{{Cite book | last =Vogt | first =Peter | author2 =Angie Wojak | title =Career Opportunities in the Fashion Industry | publisher =Info base Publishing | year =2007 | pages =[https://archive.org/details/careeropportunit00vogt/page/191 191–192] | url =https://archive.org/details/careeropportunit00vogt/page/191 | isbn =978-0-8160-6841-8 }}</ref>{{rp|191–192}}[[File:Ed Hardy Runway Models.jpg|thumb|upright|left|alt=Models wearing colourful clothing|Fashion models on the runway during [[Los Angeles Fashion Week]], 2008]]

Top runway models travel around the world to attend fashion shows. The most prestigious events are held in [[New York Fashion Week|New York City]], [[London Fashion Week|London]], [[Paris Fashion Week|Paris]], and [[Milan Fashion Week|Milan]]. Second-tier international fashion centre cities include [[Rome]], [[Florence]], [[Venice]], [[Brescia]], [[Barcelona]], [[Los Angeles]], [[Tokyo]], and [[Moscow]].

The criteria for runway models include certain height and weight requirements. The British Association of Model Agents (AMA) says that female models should be around 34"-24"-34" and between {{convert|5|ft|8|in|cm|abbr=on}} and {{convert|5|ft|11|in|cm|abbr=on}} tall.<ref name="AMA">{{cite web|url=http://www.associationofmodelagents.org/become-a-model/getting-started-as-a-model.html|title=Getting Started as a Model|work=associationofmodelagents.org|access-date=2009-06-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090829005948/http://www.associationofmodelagents.org/become-a-model/getting-started-as-a-model.html|archive-date=2009-08-29|url-status=live}}</ref> The average model is very slender. Those not meeting the size requirement may try to become a [[plus-size model]].<ref>{{cite web|last=sawyer|first=Meieli|title=how to become a plus size model|url=http://plussize.about.com/od/plussizecareercorner/a/becomemodel.htm|work=article|access-date=2011-09-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930103059/http://plussize.about.com/od/plussizecareercorner/a/becomemodel.htm|archive-date=2011-09-30|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the New York Better Business Career Services website, the preferred dimensions for a male model are a height of {{convert|5|ft|11|in|cm|abbr=on}} to {{convert|6|ft|2|in|cm|abbr=on}}, a waist of {{convert|26|-|32|in|cm|abbr=on|0}} and a chest measurement of {{convert|39|-|40|in|cm|abbr=on|0}}.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://abcnews.go.com/blogs/lifestyle/2011/09/fashion-models-by-the-numbers/ | work=ABC News | title=Fashion Models: By the Numbers | date=2011-09-14 | access-date=2012-06-24 | first1=Lauren | last1=Effron}}</ref> Male runway models are notably skinny and well toned.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/07/fashion/shows/07DIARY.html |title=The Vanishing Point |access-date=2017-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227142746/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/07/fashion/shows/07DIARY.html |archive-date=2016-12-27 |url-status=live |newspaper=The New York Times |date=2008-02-07 |last1=Trebay |first1=Guy }}</ref>

Male and female models must also possess clear skin, healthy hair, and attractive facial features. Stringent weight and body proportion guidelines form the selection criteria by which established, and would‑be, models are judged for their placement suitability, on an ongoing basis. There can be some variation regionally, and by market tier, subject to current prevailing trends at any point, in any era, by agents, agencies and end-clients.

Formerly, the required measurements for models were 35"-23.5"-35"&nbsp;in (90-60-90&nbsp;cm), the alleged measurements of [[Marilyn Monroe]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} Today's fashion models tend to have measurements closer to the AMA-recommended shape, but some – such as [[Afghans|Afghan]] model [[Zohre Esmaeli]] – still have 35"-23.5"-35" measurements. Although in some fashion centres, a size&nbsp;00 is more desirable than a size&nbsp;0.

The often thin shape of many fashion models has been criticised for warping girls' [[body image]] and encouraging [[eating disorder]]s.<ref>Nanci Hellmich, [https://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2006-09-25-thin-models_x.htm Do thin models warp girls' body image?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120702143240/http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2006-09-25-thin-models_x.htm |date=2012-07-02 }} ''[[USA Today]]'' 9/26/2006</ref> Organisers of a fashion show in [[Cibeles Madrid Fashion Week|Madrid]] in September 2006 turned away models who were judged to be [[underweight]] by medical personnel who were on hand.<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/europe/09/13/spain.models/index.html Skinny models banned from catwalk] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061124063326/http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/europe/09/13/spain.models/index.html |date=2006-11-24 }}. [[CNN]]. September 13, 2006.</ref> In February 2007 a [[Uruguay]]an model, [[Luisel Ramos]], died from heart problems secondary to malnutrition. Her sister [[Eliana Ramos]] also was a model and had died immediately after a runway show several months prior. They were amongst the three fashion models to die of [[malnutrition]] in a six-month span. The other victim was [[Ana Carolina Reston]].<ref>[http://www.news.com.au/dailytelegraph/story/0,22049,21232157-5001021,00.html Ban on stick-think models illegal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113032009/http://www.news.com.au/dailytelegraph/story/0,22049,21232157-5001021,00.html |date=2007-11-13 }}, Jennifer Melocco, ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'', February 16, 2007.</ref> [[Luisel Ramos]] died of [[heart failure]] caused by [[anorexia nervosa]] just after stepping off the [[catwalk]]. In 2015, [[France]] passed a law requiring models to be declared healthy by a doctor to participate in fashion shows. The law also requires re-touched images to be marked as such in magazines.<ref>Kim Willsher, [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/dec/18/models-doctors-note-prove-not-too-thin-france Models in France must provide doctor's note to work] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226221553/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/dec/18/models-doctors-note-prove-not-too-thin-france |date=2016-12-26 }}, The Guardian, 18 December.</ref>

===Magazine modelling===

Fashion modelling also includes modelling clothing in fashion magazines. In Japan, there are different types of fashion magazine models. {{nihongo|Exclusive models|専属モデル|senzoku moderu}} are models who regularly appear in a fashion magazine and model exclusively for it.<ref name="cnn 2010-09-16">{{cite news | first=Misha | last=Janette | url=http://travel.cnn.com/tokyo/life/day-life-japanese-hostess-model-446351/ | title=A day in the life of a Japanese 'hostess' model | work=[[CNN]] | date=2010-09-16 | access-date=2019-10-29}}</ref> On the other hand, street models, or {{nihongo|"reader models"|読者モデル|dokusha moderu|abbreviated as "dokumo" for short}}, are amateur models who model part-time for fashion magazines in conjunction to school work and their main jobs.<ref name="cnn 2010-09-16" /><ref name="tgu 2015-12-07">{{cite news | author=Satsuki | url=https://tokyogirlsupdate.com/dokumo-culture-japan-20151269196.html | title=How Dokumo, "Amateur Fashion Models", Have Been Making Impacts on Japanese Girls' Fashion Culture | work=Tokyo Girls Update | date=2015-12-07 | access-date=2019-10-29}}</ref><ref name="businessinsider 2019-01-14">{{cite news | first=Tetsuo | last=Kobayashi | url=https://www.businessinsider.jp/post-182948 | title=女子大生読者モデルは平成で終わる？ファッション誌で激減。もう憧れの存在ではない。 | language=ja | work=[[Business Insider]] | date=2019-01-14 | access-date=2019-10-29}}</ref> Unlike professional models, street models are meant to represent the average person in appearance and do not appear on runways.<ref name="tgu 2015-12-07" /> Street models are not exclusively contracted to fashion magazines.<ref name="cnn 2010-09-16" /> If a street model is popular enough, some become exclusive models.<ref name="cnn 2010-09-16" /> Many fashion icons and musicians in Japan began their careers as street models, including [[Kaela Kimura]] and [[Kyary Pamyu Pamyu]].<ref name="tgu 2015-12-07" />

===Plus-size===
{{Main|Plus-size model}}
[[File:Miss Surrey 2008 Chloe Marshall.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Refer to caption|[[Chloe Marshall]], a size 16, is considered a plus-size model.]]

Plus-size models are models who generally have larger measurements than editorial fashion models, and are not necessarily overweight. The primary use of plus-size models is to appear in advertising and runway shows for plus-size labels. Plus-size models are also engaged in work not strictly related to selling large-sized clothing, e.g., [[stock photography]] and advertising photography for cosmetics, household and pharmaceutical products and sunglasses, footwear and watches. Therefore, plus-size models do not exclusively wear garments marketed as plus-size clothing. This is especially true when participating in fashion editorials for mainstream fashion magazines. Some plus-size models have appeared in runway shows and campaigns for mainstream retailers and designers such as Gucci, Guess, Jean-Paul Gaultier, Levi's and Versace Jeans.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wwd.com/media-news/advertising/qa-paul-marciano-on-30-years-of-guess-campaigns-5882940 |title=Q&A: Paul Marciano on 30 Years of Guess Campaigns |author=Tran, Khan T.L. |date=1 May 2012 |work=wwd.com |publisher=Women's Wear Daily |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120706050948/http://www.wwd.com/media-news/advertising/qa-paul-marciano-on-30-years-of-guess-campaigns-5882940 |archive-date=2012-07-06 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Fashion%27s+new+Dahling%3B+ALL+WOMAN%3A+SOPHIE+MAKES+A+COMEBACK+WITH+THREE...-a063096063 |title=Fashion's new Dahling; All Woman: Sophie Makes A Comeback with Three New Contracts and a Sexy, Slimmer Look. |author=Brown, Annie |date=3 July 2000 |newspaper=The Daily Record |access-date=15 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019124720/http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Fashion%27s+new+Dahling%3B+ALL+WOMAN%3A+SOPHIE+MAKES+A+COMEBACK+WITH+THREE...-a063096063 |archive-date=2013-10-19 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Serpe, Gina">{{cite web |url=http://www.eonline.com/news/292057/anna-nicole-smith-s-death-five-years-on-timeline-of-a-tragedy |title=Anna Nicole Smith's Death Five Years On: Timeline of a Tragedy |author=Serpe, Gina |date=8 February 2012 |work=[[People (magazine)|People]] |publisher=People Magazine |access-date=13 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012182511/http://www.eonline.com/news/292057/anna-nicole-smith-s-death-five-years-on-timeline-of-a-tragedy |archive-date=2012-10-12 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://models.com/work/levis-boyfriend-collection-fw10/60882 |title=Levi's Boyfriend Collection F/W 10 |work=models.com |access-date=20 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513085352/http://models.com/work/levis-boyfriend-collection-fw10/60882 |archive-date=2012-05-13 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Normal-size===
[[File:Camille Kostek in California, September 2017 3.png|alt=Refer to caption|upright|thumb|[[Camille Kostek]] is a normal-size or "middle model" at size 4/6.]]
Also known as the "in-between" and "middle models",<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/fashion/people/not-middle-sized-models-fashion/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/fashion/people/not-middle-sized-models-fashion/ |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Why aren't there more 'middle' sized models in fashion?|last=Holt|first=Bethan|date=2018-11-10|work=The Telegraph|access-date=2019-08-15|language=en-GB|issn=0307-1235}}{{cbignore}}</ref> they are neither considered catalogue size (0–2) nor plus-size (10 up).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.brit.co/why-middle-models-left-out-of-traditional-fashion-industry/|title=Why the Average American Woman Is Being Left Out of the Traditional Fashion Industry|website=Brit + Co|language=en|access-date=2019-08-15|date=2018-05-30}}</ref> There is criticism that these models have been left out of the conversation because fashion companies and brands opt to employ the extremes of the spectrum.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.elle.com/news/fashion-style/myla-dalbesio-calvin-klein-plus-size|title=Myla Dalbesio on Her New Calvin Klein Campaign and the Rise of the 'In-Between' Model|last=Chernikoff|first=Leah|date=2014-11-07|website=ELLE|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.today.com/video/today/56403610|title=Size 10 model: Controversy over my body 'so surreal'|date=2014-11-11|website=TODAY.com|language=en|access-date=2019-08-15}}</ref>

Model [[Camille Kostek]] who was on a solo cover of [[Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue|''Sports Illustrated'' Swimsuit Issue]] in 2019 has stated that she was told by a well-known international modelling agency "...that it was too bad that I wasn't a size 10. That plus size is a big market right now and it's too bad I wasn't measuring bigger. My size (4/6) is considered an "in-between size", meaning I'm not a straight model nor plus model, I'm right in the middle.<ref>: {{Cite web|url=https://www.instagram.com/p/BeoQ0xDHUTD/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/s/instagram/BeoQ0xDHUTD |archive-date=2021-12-23 |url-access=subscription|title=CAMILLE KOSTEK on Instagram: "Recently I experienced a situation that rattled me for a moment, so I wanted to take it to my page for whoever is open to reading.I made…"|website=Instagram|language=en|access-date=2019-08-15}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.yahoo.com/lifestyle/camille-kostek-change-her-body-until-sports-illustrated-cover-185820847.html|title='Sports Illustrated' model Camille Kostek was told to adjust her measurements|website=yahoo.com|date=10 May 2019 |language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-15}}</ref> Actress [[Mindy Kaling]] has described this body type in her 2011 book ''Is Everybody Hanging Out Without Me?'' writing, "Since I am not model-skinny, but also not super-fat... I fall into that nebulous, 'Normal American Woman Size' that legions of fashion stylists detest... Many stylists hate that size because, I think, to them, I lack the self-discipline to be an aesthetic, or the sassy confidence to be a total fatty hedonist. They're like, 'Pick a lane.'"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/middle-sized-models-and-women-are-ignored-2016-7|title=There's a group of women that the clothing industry is ignoring — and it's costing them tons of money|last=Schlossberg|first=Mallory|website=Business Insider|access-date=2019-08-15}}</ref>

===Black models===
The arrival of black women modelling as a profession began in early postwar America. It started most notably from the need of advertisers and a rise of black photography magazines. The women who advanced in such careers were those in a middle-class system emphasising the conservative value of marriage, motherhood, and domesticity. Originally titled the "Brownskin" model,  black women refined the social, sexual, and racial realities confined in the gender expectations of the modelling world. There was a profound need for black women to partake in the advertising process for the new "Negro Market".<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Haidarali|first=Laila|date=2005|title=Polishing Brown Diamonds: African American Women, Popular Magazines, and the Advent of Modeling in Early Postwar America|journal=Journal of Women's History|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=10–37|doi=10.1353/jowh.2005.0007|s2cid=144395153|issn=1527-2036}}</ref> With the help of Branford Models, the first black agency, 1946 was the beginning of the black modelling era. Branford Models' was able to "overturn the barriers facing African Americans in the early postwar period," especially by lifting at least one economic freedom.<ref name=":0" /> In this postwar America, the demand for such presence in magazines advanced "as a stage for models to display consumer goods" while assisting "in constructing a new visual discourse of urban middle-class African America".<ref name=":0" /> In March 1966, [[Donyale Luna]] became the first Black model to appear on the cover of the British edition of ''[[British Vogue|Vogue]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fashion.telegraph.co.uk/news-features/TMG9658276/The-tragic-tale-of-Donyale-Luna.html|title=The tragic tale of Donyale Luna - Telegraph|author=|date=9 June 2015|website=fashion.telegraph.co.uk}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/02/01/black-fashion-model-donyale-luna_n_1246588.html|title=Donyale Luna, The First Black Model To Cover Vogue UK (PHOTO)|first=Julee|last=Wilson|date=1 February 2012|publisher=|via=Huff Post}}</ref>

While they represented diversity, a major gap in the fashion industry, it was only until the 1970s that black models had a substantial presence in the modelling world. Known as the "Black is Beautiful" movement, the 1970s became the era of the black model. With growing disenfranchisement and racial inequality, the United States recognised the urgency of opening the "doors of social access and visibility to black Americans".<ref name=":1">{{Cite thesis |last=Newman|first=Scarlett L.|date=2017|title=Black Models Matter: Challenging the Racism of Aesthetics and the Facade of Inclusion in the Fashion Industry|url=https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/2143|type=MA thesis |publisher=City University of New York |via=Academic Works}}</ref> The world of fashion was the gateway for social change. "The world of fashion was similarly looked to as a place where the culture could find signs of racial progress. Expressions of beauty and glamour mattered. Good race relations required taking note of who was selling women lipsticks and mini skirts, which meant that advertisers began looking for black models"<ref name=":1" /> Black models were looked to as the vehicle of social change. They were given the opportunity to balance out the lack of presence of black individuals in the mainstream culture. Agencies were beginning to scout black models and focus on the social change they were contributing to. ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine in October 1969, covered their issue with [[Naomi Sims]], one of the most influential black models in the industry. Her rise to fame led to her being hired by international magazines and working on individual projects with designers across the globe.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.biography.com/news/naomi-campbell-famous-black-models|title=Naomi Campbell and 10 Black Models Who Owned the Runway|last=Haynes|first=Clarence|date=June 24, 2019|website=Biography|access-date=October 11, 2019}}</ref> In the Life Magazine issue, Black Beauty, a new agency that represented black models, had a spread in the magazine that showcased 39 black models. Each one of the models had unique features, allowing black expression to progress through this historic magazine spread.<ref name=":1" />

With the movement's presence both in magazines and on the runway, designers began to realise the need to include black models on their runways and advertisements. The Battle of Versailles was one of the most notable moments in fashion history that put black models on the map. [[Eleanor Lambert]], creator of Fashion Week and a major "[controller] of the narrative of American fashion", set up a dinner and a fundraiser to both increase American fashion visibility and restore the palace of Versailles.<ref name=":1" /> Five French designers and five American designers battled it out on the runway, showing off the fashion, and for the Americans, black models as well. [[Oscar de la Renta]] stated "it was the black models that had made the difference." [[Pat Cleveland]], [[Bethann Hardison]], [[Billie Blair]], Jennifer Brice, [[Alva Chinn]], and [[The Battle of Versailles Fashion Show|Ramona Saunders]], were among the many black models that helped Team America win and stun the French competition. This competition made the black model a worldwide phenomenon. The French were beginning to welcome diversity on the runway and in their advertising. With the recognition Versailles had given, black presence in the modelling world carried out into the 1980s and the 1990s. The models were now known by name and the publicity that came with the designers they were modelling for. With the rise of the supermodel, models like [[Naomi Campbell]] and [[Tyra Banks]] paved the way for black success.<ref name=":1" /> [[Naomi Campbell]], born in London, was the first black model to cover [[Vogue (magazine)|American Vogue]], [[Time (magazine)|TIME magazine]], Russian Vogue, and the first British black model to cover British vogue. Brands like [[Chanel]], [[Louis Vuitton|Louis Vitton]], [[Balmain (fashion house)|Balmain]], [[Prada]], and more have all featured Campbell in their campaigns. She used her remarkable success to achieve more than fashion excellence.
[[File:Tyra Banks 1995.jpg|thumb|alt=Refer to caption|Tyra Banks (1995)]]
By the mid-1990s, black presence in the modelling world had dramatically decreased. Designers began to favour a consistent aesthetic and elected for skinnier white models. This reality was paved by models such as [[Kate Moss]] and [[Stella Tennant]], who provided a more consistent look for the runway. At this time, "the number of working black models in high-profile runway presentation... became so dire that stories began appearing in the mainstream media about the whitewashing of the runway".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thecut.com/2013/09/givhan-confronting-the-lack-of-black-models.html|title=Robin Givhan: Confronting the Lack of Black Models on the Runway|last=Givhan|first=Robin|date=September 6, 2013|website=The Cut|access-date=October 15, 2019}}</ref> In response, models like Campbell, Iman, and Bethann Hardison, joined forces throughout the"Diversity Coalition" in an attempt to "call out and accuse prominent fashion houses for snubbing Black and Asian models on the catwalk, editorial spreads, and campaigns".<ref name=":1" /> The lack of representation was, in part, due to the belief that "black girls don't push products", which "encouraged people who work directly and indirectly in the industry to speak out on the injustices that go on within it".<ref name=":1" /> In the 1990s, it was quite clear that the top designers simply preferred a new aesthetic that excluded models of colour, which resulted in only 6% of runway models to be women of colour.<ref name=":1" /> Campbell's Diversity Coalition's primary mission was to "expedite inclusion on the runway by deliberately calling out designers who have executed acts of racism on the runway".<ref name=":1" /> According to Campbell, it was their choice to not include black models on the runway and desire a uniformed runway that resulted in a racist act. Although such a dramatic effort to exclude black presence from the fashion world, models like [[Tyra Banks]] and [[Veronica Webb]] persisted. Banks not only dominated the runway as a teen, she took over countless pop culture platforms. Being the first black model to cover [[Sports Illustrated]], Banks was one of the most prominent models in the early 2000s. Covering ''[[Sports Illustrated]]'', ''Elle'', ''[[Essence (magazine)|Essence]]'', ''[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]'', and walking for [[Chanel]], [[Christian Dior (fashion house)|Chrisitan Dior]], and Claude Monanta, Banks was truly dominating the fashion world. In addition, she acted in ''Fresh Prince of Bel Air'' and created her own reality competition show called [[America's Next Top Model]].<ref name=":2" /> In conversation with Trebay of Los the New York Times, Banks stated that her first cover on Sports Illustrated "changed [her] life overnight. You have to think back to remember what that did for an appreciation of black beauty to have a black girl, a girl next door type, on the cover of one of the most mass mainstream magazines of our lives. It was a societal statement, a political statement, and an economic one".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/08/style/tyra-banks-sports-illustrated-swimsuit-issue.html|title=At 45, Tyra Banks Is Back on the Cover of Sports Illustrated|last=Trebay|first=Guy|date=May 8, 2019|website=The New York Times|access-date=October 15, 2019}}</ref> Now, models like [[Joan Smalls]], [[Winnie Harlow|Winne Harlow]], [[Slick Woods]], [[Jasmine Sanders]] and more are continuing the fight for black presence in the modelling world and using their successors as inspiration.

===Fitting models===
{{Main|Fit model}}
A '''fit model''' (sometimes '''fitting model''') is a person who is used by a [[fashion designer]] or [[clothing]] [[manufacturing|manufacturer]] to check the fit, drape and visual appearance of a design on a representative human being, effectively acting as a live [[mannequin]].<ref name=fasa>{{cite web |title=What is a fit model? |website=Fashion-Incubator:Lessons from the Sustainable Factory Floor |url=http://fashion-incubator.com/what-is-a-fit-model/ |first=Kathleen |last=Fasanella |date=2010-08-17 |access-date=2016-04-20}}</ref>

===Parts models===
Some models are employed for their body parts. For example, [[hand model]]s may be used to promote products held in the hand and [[nail (anatomy)|nail]]-related products. (e.g. rings, other jewelry or [[nail polish]]). They are frequently part of television commercials.<ref name="cnn.com">{{cite news | url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/LIVING/personal/08/10/hand.modeling/index.html#cnnSTCText | author=Hare, Brianna | work=CNN | title=Their hands are worth 1,200 a day | date=August 10, 2009 | access-date=2010-10-22 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100304210732/http://www.cnn.com/2009/LIVING/personal/08/10/hand.modeling/index.html#cnnSTCText | archive-date=2010-03-04 | url-status=live }}</ref> Many parts models have exceptionally attractive body parts, but there is also demand for unattractive or unusual looking body parts for particular campaigns.

Hands are the most in-demand body parts. Feet models are also in high demand, particularly those that fit sample-size shoes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/3am/celebrity-news/meet-the-model-who-stands-in-for-kate-338448 |title=Meet the model who stands in for Kate Moss |work=Mirror |access-date=13 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111102413/http://www.mirror.co.uk/3am/celebrity-news/meet-the-model-who-stands-in-for-kate-338448 |archive-date=2014-01-11 |url-status=live |date=2008-09-18 }}</ref>   Models are also successful modelling other specific parts including abs, arms, back, bust or chest, legs, and lips.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nypost.com/p/news/local/the_sum_of_their_parts_BfUEYAQhhkFVQ98mESGRYN?photo_num=8 |title=The sum of their parts |work=nypost.com |access-date=16 December 2012 |author=Susannah Cahalan |date=2010-04-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411200436/http://www.nypost.com/p/news/local/the_sum_of_their_parts_BfUEYAQhhkFVQ98mESGRYN?photo_num=8 |archive-date=2010-04-11 |url-status=live |author-link=Susannah Cahalan }}</ref> Some petite models (females who are under {{convert|5|ft|6|in|abbr=on|2}} and do not qualify as fashion models) have found success in women's body part modelling.

Parts model divisions can be found at agencies worldwide. Several agencies solely represent parts models, including Hired Hands in London, Body Parts Models in Los Angeles, Carmen Hand Model Management in New York and [[Parts Models]] in New York.<ref name="FN">{{cite news |url=https://www.foxnews.com/story/part-time-modeling |title='Part' Time Modeling |author=FoxNews.com |date=July 13, 2002 |publisher=FoxNews.com |access-date=October 14, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130330185721/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,57596,00.html |archive-date=2013-03-30 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://money.cnn.com/galleries/2011/smallbusiness/1111/gallery.cool_companies/index.html |title=Cool Companies |work=cnn.com |publisher=CNN |access-date=16 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303190947/http://money.cnn.com/galleries/2011/smallbusiness/1111/gallery.cool_companies/index.html |archive-date=2013-03-03 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://carmenhandmodels.com/about.html |title=About Carmen Hand Model Management |work=carmenhandmodels.com |access-date=10 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728114458/http://carmenhandmodels.com/about.html |archive-date=2013-07-28 |url-status=live }}</ref> Parts Models is the largest parts agency, representing over 300 parts models.<ref name="cnn.com"/><ref name="FN"/><ref name="HJ">{{cite web |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1876&dat=20030330&id=1zsfAAAAIBAJ&pg=6752,5724818 |title=A Model For Good Hand Care |author=Herald Journal |date=March 30, 2003 |publisher=Herald Journal |access-date=November 11, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507182546/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1876&dat=20030330&id=1zsfAAAAIBAJ&sjid=MNAEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6752,5724818 |archive-date=2016-05-07 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="AB">{{cite web |url=http://www.aburdick.com/blog/2002/07/12/i-was-deniros-leg-tales-from-the-parts-modeling-industry/ |title=I Was DeNiro's Leg: Tales from the parts-modeling industry |author=Alan Burdick |date=July 2002 |publisher=Alan Burdick |access-date=November 11, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513110321/http://www.aburdick.com/blog/2002/07/12/i-was-deniros-leg-tales-from-the-parts-modeling-industry/ |archive-date=May 13, 2013 }}</ref><ref name="BS">{{cite web |url=http://www.bellasugar.com/Five-Fun-Facts-About-Hand-Models-3931166 |title=Five Fun Facts About Hand Models |author=BellaSugar |work=POPSUGAR Beauty |date=August 11, 2009 |publisher=BellaSugar |access-date=November 11, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202110357/http://www.bellasugar.com/Five-Fun-Facts-About-Hand-Models-3931166 |archive-date=2012-12-02 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Petite models===
Petite models are models that are under the typical height requirements that are expected of fashion models. Petite models typically work more often in commercial and print modelling (rather than runway modelling).

The height of models is typically {{convert|5|ft|9|in}} and above for women, and {{convert|6|ft|1|in}} and above for men.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}} Models who are shorter than these heights usually fall under the category of petite or commercial models.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}

===Podium models===
[[File:Podium Model 2016.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A model standing extremely still, almost like a statue|Podium model modelling a dress by [[Sue Wong]] ]]
'''Podium models''' differ from runway models in that they do not walk down a runway, but rather just stand on an elevated platform. They resemble live mannequins placed in various places throughout an event. Attendees can walk up to the models and inspect and even feel the clothing. Podium Modelling is a practical alternative way of presenting a fashion show when space is too limited to have a full runway fashion show.

===Earnings and demographics===
According to the [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]] the median earnings for a model in the United States, as of 2021, is $34,000 annually. There are approximately 3,200 men and women who work as models full-time in the United States.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bhasin |first1=Kim |last2=Holman |first2=Jordyn |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2021-02-19/coco-rocha-model-camp-trains-new-hires-as-photo-shoots-disappear-from-covid |title=Coco Rocha Trains New Generation of Models to Survive a Predatory Industry |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |date=2021-02-19 |accessdate=2021-02-22 }}</ref>