Editing Marshmallow (section)

== Ingredients ==
Marshmallows consist of four ingredients: sugar, water, air, and a whipping agent/aerator (usually a protein). The type of sugar and whipping agent varies depending on desired characteristics.  Each ingredient plays a specific role in the final product.

The marshmallow is a [[foam]], consisting of an aqueous continuous [[Phase (matter)|phase]] and a gaseous dispersed phase (in other words, a liquid with gas bubbles spread throughout). In addition to being a foam, this also makes marshmallows an "aerated" confection because it is made up of 50% air. The goal of an aerated confection like a marshmallow is to incorporate gas into a sugar mixture, and stabilize the aerated product before the gas can escape. When the gas is introduced into the system, tiny air bubbles are created. This is what contributes to the unique textural properties and mouth-feel of this product.<ref name=Dekker>{{Cite book|title=Essentials of Food Science|last1=Christian|first1=Elizabeth|last2=Vaclavik|first2=Vickie|publisher=Marcel Dekker|year=1996|location=New York, NY}}</ref>

=== Protein ===
In marshmallows, proteins are the main surface-active agents responsible for the formation, and stabilization of the dispersed air.  Due to their structure, surface-active molecules gather at the surface area of a portion of (water-based) liquid. A portion of each protein molecule is [[hydrophile|hydrophilic]], with a polar charge, and another portion is [[hydrophobe|hydrophobic]] and non-polar. The non-polar section has little or no affinity for water, and so this section orients as far away from the water as possible. However, the polar section is attracted to the water and has little or no affinity for the air. Therefore, the molecule orients with the polar section in the water, with the non-polar section in the air. Two primary proteins that are commonly used as aerators in marshmallows are [[Egg white|albumen]] (egg whites) and gelatin.<ref name=UCLA>{{Cite web|url=https://scienceandfooducla.wordpress.com/2015/03/03/homemade-marshmallows/|title=Homemade Marshmallow|last=Liu|first=Eunice|date=2015|website=scienceandfooducla.wordpress.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221155556/https://scienceandfooducla.wordpress.com/2015/03/03/homemade-marshmallows/|archive-date=2016-12-21}}</ref>

==== Albumen (egg whites) ====
Albumen is a mixture of proteins found in [[egg white]]s and is utilized for its capacity to create foams. In a commercialized setting, dried albumen is used as opposed to fresh egg whites. In addition to convenience, the advantages of using dried albumen are an increase in food safety and the reduction of water content in the marshmallow. Fresh egg whites carry a higher risk of ''Salmonella,'' and are approximately 90 percent water. This is undesirable for the shelf life and firmness of the product. For artisan-type marshmallows, prepared by a candy maker, fresh egg whites are usually used. Albumen is rarely used on its own when incorporated into modern marshmallows, and instead is used in conjunction with gelatin.<ref name=Greweling>{{Cite book|title=Chocolates and confections: Formula, theory, and technique for the artisan confectioner|last=Greweling|first=Peter|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|year=2013|isbn=978-0-470-42441-4|location=New York|pages=296–311}}</ref>

==== Gelatin ====
[[Gelatin]] is the aerator most often used in the production of marshmallows. It is made up of [[collagen]], a structural protein derived from animal skin, connective tissue, and bones. Not only can it stabilize foams, like albumen, but when combined with water it forms a thermally-reversible gel. This means that gelatin can [[melting|melt]], then reset due to its sensitivity to temperature. The melting point of gelatin gel is around {{convert|95|F|C}}, which is just below [[normal body temperature]] (around {{convert|97|F|C}}). This is what contributes to the "melt-in-your-mouth" sensation when a marshmallow is consumed—it actually starts to melt when it touches the tongue.<ref name="UCLA" />

During preparation, the temperature needs to be just above the melting point of the gelatin, so that as soon as it is formed it cools quickly, and the gelatin sets, retaining the desired shape. If the marshmallow rope mixture exiting the extruder during processing is too warm, the marshmallow starts to flow before the gelatin sets. Instead of a round marshmallow, it takes on a more oval form. Excessive heat can also degrade, or break down, the gelatin itself. Therefore, when marshmallows are being produced at home or by artisan candy makers, the gelatin is added after the syrup has been heated and cooled down.

In commercial operations, the gelatin is simply cooked with the sugar syrup, rather than being added later after the syrup has cooled. In this case, kinetics play an important role, with both time and temperature factoring in. If the gelatin was added at the beginning of a batch that was then cooked to 112–116&nbsp;°C in 20–30 minutes, a significant amount of gelatin would break down. The marshmallow would have reduced springiness from that loss of gelatin. But since the time the syrup spends at elevated temperature in modern cookers is so short, there is little to no degradation of the gelatin.<ref name="Hartel">{{Cite book|title=Candy Bites: The Science of Sweets|last1=Hartel|first1=Richard|last2=Hartel|first2=AnnaKate|publisher=Copernicus|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4614-9382-2|location=New York|pages=199–202}}</ref>

In terms of texture, and mouth-feel, gelatin makes marshmallows chewy by forming a tangled 3-D network of polymer chains.  Once gelatin is dissolved in warm water (dubbed the "blooming stage"), it forms a [[Dispersion (chemistry)|dispersion]], which results in{{how|date=June 2021}} a [[cross-link]]ing of its helix-shaped chains.  The linkages in the gelatin protein network trap air in the marshmallow mixture and immobilize the water molecules in the network. The result is the well-known spongy structure of marshmallows. This is why the omission of gelatin from a marshmallow recipe results in [[marshmallow creme]], since there is no gelatin network to trap the water and air bubbles.<ref name="UCLA" />

=== Sugars ===
A traditional marshmallow might contain about 60% corn syrup, 30% sugar, and 1–2% gelatin. A combination of different sugars is used to control the solubility of the solution.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hartel|first1=Richard W.|last2=Ergun|first2=Roja|last3=Vogel|first3=Sarah|date=2011-01-01|title=Phase/State Transitions of Confectionery Sweeteners: Thermodynamic and Kinetic Aspects|journal=Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=17–32|doi=10.1111/j.1541-4337.2010.00136.x|issn=1541-4337}}</ref> The corn syrup/sugar ratio influences the texture by slowing crystallization of the sucrose. The smooth texture of marshmallows relies on disordered, or amorphous, sugar molecules. In contrast, increasing the sugar ratio to about 60–65% produces a grainy marshmallow.<ref name="Hegenbert" /> Temperature also plays an important role in producing smooth marshmallows by reducing the time window for ordered crystals to form. To ensure the sugars are disordered, the sugar syrup solution is heated to a high temperature and then cooled rapidly.<ref name="ACS">{{Cite web|url=https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/resources/highschool/chemmatters/past-issues/archive-2014-2015/candymaking.html|title=The Sweet Science of Candy Making|last=Husband|first=Tom|date=October 2014|website=www.acs.org|publisher=American Chemical Society|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161222061852/https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/resources/highschool/chemmatters/past-issues/archive-2014-2015/candymaking.html|archive-date=2016-12-22}}</ref>

==== Sugarcane and sugar beet ====
[[Sugarcane]] and [[sugar beet]] are the two primary sources of sugar, consisting of sucrose molecules. Sucrose is a disaccharide that consists of one glucose and fructose molecule. This sugar provides sweetness and bulk to the marshmallow, while simultaneously setting the foam to a firm consistency as it cools.<ref name="Hegenbert">{{Cite web|url=https://www.naturalproductsinsider.com/specialty-nutrients/sweet-facts-confection-creation|title=The Sweet Facts of Confection Creation|last=Hegenbert|first=Scott|date=1995|website=www.naturalproductinsider.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220135819/http://www.naturalproductsinsider.com/articles/1995/04/the-sweet-facts-of-confection-creation.aspx|archive-date=2016-12-20}}</ref> Sucrose, and sugars in general, impair the ability of a foam to form, but improve foam stability. Therefore, sucrose is used in conjunction with a protein like gelatin. The protein can adsorb, unfold, and form a stable network, while the sugar can increase the viscosity.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Food Chemistry|last=Fennema|first=Owen|publisher=Marcel Dekker|year=1996|isbn=978-0-8247-9346-3|location=New York, NY}}</ref> Liquid drainage of the continuous phase must be minimized as well. Thick liquids drain more slowly than thin ones, and so increasing the viscosity of the continuous phase reduces drainage. A high viscosity is essential if a stable foam is to be produced. Therefore, sucrose is a main component of marshmallow. But sucrose is seldom used on its own, because of its tendency to crystallize.

==== Corn syrup ====
[[Corn syrup]], derived from [[maize]], contains [[glucose]], [[maltose]], and other [[oligosaccharides]]. Corn syrup can be obtained from the partial hydrolysis of [[cornstarch]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/corn%20syrup|title=Corn Syrup|website=www.Merriam-Webster.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220114934/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/corn%20syrup|archive-date=2016-12-20}}</ref> Corn syrup is important in the production of marshmallow because it prevents the crystallization of other sugars (like sucrose). It may also contribute body, reduce sweetness, and alter flavor release, depending on the Dextrose Equivalent (DE) of the glucose syrup used.

The DE is the measure of the amount of reducing sugars present in a sugar product in relation to glucose. Lower-DE glucose syrups provide a chewier texture, while higher-DE syrups make the product more tender.<ref name="Hegenbert" /> In addition, depending on the type of DE used, can alter the sweetness, hygroscopicity, and browning of the marshmallow. Corn syrup is flavorless and cheap to produce, which is why candy companies love using this product.

==== Invert sugar ====
[[Inverted sugar syrup|Invert sugar]] is produced when sucrose breaks down due to the addition of water, also known as hydrolysis. This molecule exhibits all the characteristics of honey except the flavor because it is the primary sugar found in honey. This means that invert sugar has the ability to prevent crystallization, and produce a tender marshmallow. It is also an effective [[humectant]], allowing it to trap water and prevent the marshmallow from drying out. For some candies, this is not a good trait to have, but for marshmallows, it is an advantage since it has a high moisture content.<ref name="Hartel" />

==== Fruit syrups ====
While not widely used for traditional or commercial recipes, [[fruit syrups]] have been proposed as an alternative sugar for marshmallows.<ref name="goztok2022">{{cite journal | title = Investigation of the use of various fruit juice concentrates instead of corn syrup in marshmallow type products: A preliminary study | journal = International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science | last1 = Goztok | first1 = S.P. | last2 = Gunes | first2 = R. | last3 = Toker | first3 = O.S. | last4 = Palabiyik | first4 = I. | last5 = Konar | first5 = N. | volume = 30 | date = 2022 | page = 100616 | doi = 10.1016/j.ijgfs.2022.100616| s2cid = 253198704 }}</ref>

=== Additional ingredients ===

==== Flavors ====
Unless a variation of the standard marshmallow is being made, vanilla is always used as the flavoring. The vanilla can either be added in extract form, or by infusing the vanilla beans in the sugar syrup during cooking. This{{clarify|date=May 2018}} is the best technique to get an even distribution of flavor throughout the marshmallow.<ref name="Greweling" />

==== Acids ====
Acids, such as cream of tartar or lemon juice, may also be used to increase foam stability. Addition of acid decreases the pH. This reduces the charge on the protein molecules, and brings them closer to their [[isoelectric point]]. This results in a stronger, more stable inter-facial film. When added to egg whites, acid prevents excessive aggregation at the interface. However, acid delays foam formation. It may therefore be added toward the end of the whipping process after a stable foam has been created.<ref name="Dekker" />