Editing Manufacturing (section)

==History and development==
===Prehistory and ancient history===
{{See also|Industry (archaeology)|Prehistoric technology|Ancient technology}}
[[File:Stone Core for Making Blades - Boqer Tachtit, Negev, circa 40000 BP (detail).jpg|thumb|Flint stone core for making blades in [[Negev]], Israel, {{circa}} 40000 [[Before Present|BP]]]]
[[File:Sword bronze age (2nd version).jpg|thumb|A late [[Bronze Age sword]] or dagger blade now on display at the [[National Archaeological Museum, France|National Archaeological Museum]] in France]]
Human ancestors manufactured objects using stone and other tools long before the emergence of ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' about 200,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Human Ancestors Hall: Homo sapiens |url=http://anthropology.si.edu/humanorigins/ha/sap.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501000000/http://anthropology.si.edu/humanorigins/ha/sap.htm |archive-date=May 1, 2009 |access-date=July 15, 2021 |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]}}</ref> The earliest methods of [[stone tool]] making, known as the [[Oldowan]] "[[Industry (archaeology)|industry]]", date back to at least 2.3&nbsp;million years ago,<ref>{{Cite news |date=May 6, 1999 |title=Ancient 'Tool Factory' Uncovered |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/336555.stm |url-status=live |access-date=July 15, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070318192530/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/336555.stm |archive-date=March 18, 2007}}</ref> with the earliest direct evidence of tool usage found in [[Ethiopia]] within the [[Great Rift Valley, Kenya|Great Rift Valley]], dating back to 2.5&nbsp;million years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Heinzelin |first1=Jean de |last2=Clark |first2=JD |last3=White |first3=T |last4=Hart |first4=W |last5=Renne |first5=P |last6=Woldegabriel |first6=G |last7=Beyene |first7=Y |last8=Vrba |first8=E |date=April 1999 |title=Environment and Behavior of 2.5-Million-Year-Old Bouri Hominids |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=284 |issue=5414 |pages=625–629 |bibcode=1999Sci...284..625D |doi=10.1126/science.284.5414.625 |pmid=10213682}}</ref> To manufacture a stone tool, a "[[lithic core|core]]" of hard stone with specific flaking properties (such as [[flint]]) was struck with a [[hammerstone]]. This flaking produced sharp edges that could be used as tools, primarily in the form of [[chopper (archaeology)|choppers]] or [[scraper (archaeology)|scrapers]].<ref name="ea_archaeology">{{Cite web |last=Burke |first=Ariane |title=Archaeology |url=http://ea.grolier.com/cgi-bin/article?assetid=0019880-04 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20080521022936/http://ea.grolier.com/cgi-bin/article?assetid=0019880-04 |archive-date=May 21, 2008 |access-date=July 15, 2021 |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Americana]]}}</ref> These tools greatly aided the early humans in their [[hunter-gatherer]] lifestyle to form other tools out of softer materials such as bone and wood.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Plummer |first=Thomas |year=2004 |title=Flaked Stones and Old Bones: Biological and Cultural Evolution at the Dawn of Technology |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |publisher=[[Yearbook of Physical Anthropology]] |volume=Suppl 39 |issue=47 |pages=118–64 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.20157 |pmid=15605391}}</ref> The [[Middle Paleolithic]], approximately 300,000 years ago, saw the introduction of the [[prepared-core technique]], where multiple blades could be rapidly formed from a single core stone.<ref name="ea_archaeology" /> [[Pressure flaking]], in which a wood, bone, or antler [[punch (engineering)|punch]] could be used to shape a stone very finely was developed during the [[Upper Paleolithic]], beginning approximately 40,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Haviland |first=William A. |title=Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge |publisher=[[The Thomson Corporation]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-534-62487-3 |page=77}}</ref> During the [[Neolithic]] period, polished [[stone tool]]s were manufactured from a variety of hard rocks such as [[flint]], [[jade]], [[jadeite]], and [[Greenschist|greenstone]]. The polished axes were used alongside other stone tools including [[Projectile point|projectiles]], knives, and scrapers, as well as tools manufactured from organic materials such as wood, bone, and antler.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tóth |first=Zsuzsanna |title=Bone, Antler, and Tusk tools of the Early Neolithic Körös Culture |publisher=BAR International Series 2334 |year=2012 |editor-last=Anders |editor-first=Alexandra |location=Oxford |chapter=The First Neolithic Sites in Central/South-East European Transect, Volume III: The Körös Culture in Eastern Hungary |editor-last2=Siklósi |editor-first2=Zsuzsanna}}</ref>

Copper [[smelting]] is believed to have originated when the technology of pottery [[kiln]] allowed sufficiently high temperatures.<ref name="Tylecote_1992">{{Cite book |last=Merson |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/geniusthatwaschi0000mers |title=The Genius That Was China: East and West in the Making of the Modern World |publisher=The Overlook Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-87951-397-9 |location=Woodstock, NY |page=69 |url-access=registration}}</ref> The concentration of various elements such as arsenic increase with depth in copper ore deposits and smelting of these ores yields [[arsenical bronze]], which can be sufficiently work-hardened to be suitable for manufacturing tools.<ref name="Tylecote_1992" /> [[Bronze]] is an alloy of copper with tin; the latter of which being found in relatively few deposits globally delayed true tin bronze becoming widespread. During the [[Bronze Age]], bronze was a major improvement over stone as a material for making tools, both because of its mechanical properties like strength and ductility and because it could be cast in molds to make intricately shaped objects. Bronze significantly advanced shipbuilding technology with better tools and bronze nails, which replaced the old method of attaching boards of the hull with cord woven through drilled holes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Paine |first=Lincoln |title=The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World |publisher=Random House, LLC |year=2013 |location=New York}}</ref> The [[Iron Age]] is conventionally defined by the widespread manufacturing of weapons and tools using iron and steel rather than bronze.<ref name="waldbaum">{{Cite book |last=Jane C. |first=Waldbaum |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1146527679 |title=From Bronze to Iron: The Transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in the Eastern Mediterranean |date=1978 |publisher=Paul Aström |isbn=91-85058-79-3 |pages=56–58 |oclc=1146527679}}</ref> Iron smelting is more difficult than tin and copper smelting because smelted iron requires hot-working and can be melted only in specially designed furnaces. The place and time for the discovery of iron smelting is not known, partly because of the difficulty of distinguishing metal extracted from nickel-containing ores from hot-worked meteoritic iron.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Photos |first=E. |year=1989 |title=The Question of Meteoritic versus Smelted Nickel-Rich Iron: Archaeological Evidence and Experimental Results |journal=World Archaeology |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=403–421 |doi=10.1080/00438243.1989.9980081 |jstor=124562 |s2cid=5908149}}</ref>

During the growth of the ancient civilizations, many ancient technologies resulted from advances in manufacturing. Several of the six classic [[simple machines]] were invented in Mesopotamia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Moorey |first=Peter Roger Stuart |title=Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence |date=1999 |publisher=[[Eisenbrauns]] |isbn=978-1575060422}}</ref> Mesopotamians have been credited with the invention of the wheel. The [[wheel and axle]] mechanism first appeared with the [[potter's wheel]], invented in [[Mesopotamia]] (modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Potts |first=D. T. |title=A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East |year=2012 |page=285}}</ref> Egyptian paper made from [[papyrus]], as well as [[pottery]], were mass-produced and exported throughout the Mediterranean basin. Early construction techniques used by the Ancient Egyptians made use of bricks composed mainly of clay, sand, silt, and other minerals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Trzciński |first1=Jerzy |last2=Zaremba |first2=Małgorzata |last3=Rzepka |first3=Sławomir |last4=Welc |first4=Fabian |last5=Szczepański |first5=Tomasz |date=2016-06-01 |title=Preliminary Report on Engineering Properties and Environmental Resistance of Ancient Mud Bricks from Tell El-Retaba Archaeological Site in the Nile Delta |journal=Studia Quaternaria |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=47–56 |doi=10.1515/squa-2016-0005 |s2cid=132452242 |s2cid-access=free |issn=2300-0384|doi-access=free |bibcode=2016StudQ..33...47T }}</ref>

===Medieval and early modern===
[[File:Stocking Frame.jpg|thumb|A stocking frame at Ruddington Framework Knitters' Museum in [[Ruddington]], England]]
The [[Middle Ages]] witnessed new inventions, innovations in the ways of managing traditional means of production, and economic growth. [[Papermaking]], a 2nd-century Chinese technology, was carried to the Middle East when a group of Chinese papermakers were captured in the 8th century.<ref>{{cite book | url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191735516.timeline.0001 | chapter=Timeline: 8th century | isbn=978-0191735516 | title=8th century | access-date=July 15, 2021 | archive-date=August 25, 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210825213937/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191735516.timeline.0001 | url-status=live }}</ref> Papermaking technology was spread to [[Europe]] by the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=de Safita |first=Neathery |date=July 2002 |title=A Brief History Of Paper. |url=http://users.stlcc.edu/nfuller/paper/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180822144311/http://users.stlcc.edu/nfuller/paper/ |archive-date=August 22, 2018 |access-date=July 15, 2021 |website=[[St. Louis Community College]]}}</ref> A paper mill was established in Sicily in the 12th century. In Europe the fiber to make pulp for making paper was obtained from linen and cotton rags. [[Lynn Townsend White Jr.]] credited the spinning wheel with increasing the supply of rags, which led to cheap paper, which was a factor in the development of printing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marchetti |first=Cesare |year=1978 |title=A Postmortem Technology Assessment of the Spinning Wheel: The Last 1000 Years, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 13; pp. 91–93 |url=http://www.cesaremarchetti.org/archive/scan/MARCHETTI-079.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502152013/http://www.cesaremarchetti.org/archive/scan/MARCHETTI-079.pdf |archive-date=May 2, 2016 |access-date=July 15, 2021 |journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change }}</ref> Due to the casting of cannon, the [[blast furnace]] came into widespread use in France in the mid 15th century. The blast furnace had been used in China since the 4th century BC.<ref name="Tylecote_1992" /> The [[stocking frame]], which was invented in 1598, increased a knitter's number of knots per minute from 100 to 1000.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rosen |first=William |title=The Most Powerful Idea in the World: A Story of Steam, Industry and Invention |publisher=University Of Chicago Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-226-72634-2 |page=237}}</ref>

===First and Second Industrial Revolutions===
{{main|Industrial Revolution|Second Industrial Revolution}}
[[File:Powerloom weaving in 1835.jpg|thumb|An 1835 illustration of a [[Roberts Loom]] weaving shed]]
The [[Industrial Revolution]] was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Europe and the [[United States]] from 1760 to the 1830s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Industrial History of European Countries |url=https://www.erih.net/how-it-started/industrial-history-of-european-countries |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623201807/https://www.erih.net/how-it-started/industrial-history-of-european-countries |archive-date=June 23, 2021 |access-date=July 15, 2021 |website=European Route of Industrial Heritage |publisher=Council of Europe}}</ref> This transition included going from [[craft production|hand production methods]] to machines, new [[chemical manufacturing]] and [[Puddling (metallurgy)|iron production]] processes, the increasing use of [[steam power]] and [[water power]], the development of [[machine tool]]s and the rise of the [[mechanization|mechanized]] [[factory system]]. The Industrial Revolution also led to an unprecedented rise in the rate of population growth. Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and [[capital (economics)|capital]] invested. The [[textile industry]] was also the first to use modern production methods.<ref name="David S. Landes 1969">{{Cite book |last=Landes |first=David S. |title=The Unbound Prometheus |date=1969 |publisher=Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-09418-4}}</ref>{{rp|40}} Rapid industrialization first began in Britain, starting with mechanized spinning in the 1780s,<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |last=Gupta |first=Bishnupriya |title=Cotton Textiles and the Great Divergence: Lancashire, India and Shifting Competitive Advantage, 1600–1850 |url=http://www.iisg.nl/hpw/papers/broadberry-gupta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910075425/http://www.iisg.nl/hpw/papers/broadberry-gupta.pdf |archive-date=September 10, 2016 |access-date=July 15, 2021 |website=International Institute of Social History |publisher=Department of Economics, University of Warwick}}</ref> with high rates of growth in steam power and iron production occurring after 1800. [[Textile industry|Mechanized textile production]] spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and the United States in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging [[#Belgium|in Belgium]] and the United States and later textiles in France.<ref name="David S. Landes 1969" />

An economic recession occurred from the late 1830s to the early 1840s when the adoption of the Industrial Revolution's early innovations, such as mechanized spinning and weaving, slowed down and their markets matured. Innovations developed late in the period, such as the increasing adoption of locomotives, steamboats and steamships, [[Hot blast|hot blast iron smelting]] and new technologies, such as the [[electrical telegraph]], were widely introduced in the 1840s and 1850s, were not powerful enough to drive high rates of growth. Rapid economic growth began to occur after 1870, springing from a new group of innovations in what has been called the [[Second Industrial Revolution]]. These innovations included new [[Bessemer process|steel making process]]es, [[mass-production]], [[assembly line]]s, [[electrical grid]] systems, the large-scale manufacture of machine tools and the use of increasingly advanced machinery in steam-powered factories.<ref name="David S. Landes 1969" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=George Rogers |title=The Transportation Revolution, 1815–1860 |year=1951 |publisher=Rinehart |isbn=978-0-87332-101-3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Roe |first=Joseph Wickham |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X-EJAAAAIAAJ |title=English and American Tool Builders |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1916 |location=New Haven, Connecticut |lccn=16011753 |access-date=July 15, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414155300/https://books.google.com/books?id=X-EJAAAAIAAJ |archive-date=April 14, 2021 |url-status=live}} Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 ({{LCCN|27024075}}); and by Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, Illinois, ({{ISBN|978-0-917914-73-7}})</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hunter |first=Louis C. |title=A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930, Vol. 2: Steam Power |publisher=University Press of Virginia |year=1985 |location=Charlottesville |page=18}}</ref>

Building on improvements in vacuum pumps and materials research, [[incandescent light bulb]]s became practical for general use in the late 1870s. This invention had a profound effect on the workplace because factories could now have second and third shift workers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nye |first=David E. |title=Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology |publisher=The MIT Press |year=1990 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States and London, England}}</ref> Shoe production was mechanized during the mid 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thomson |first=Ross |url=https://archive.org/details/pathtomechanized00thom |title=The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-8078-1867-1}}</ref> Mass production of [[sewing machine]]s and [[agricultural machinery]] such as reapers occurred in the mid to late 19th century.<ref name="hounshell-1984">{{Hounshell1984}}</ref> The mass production of bicycles started in the 1880s.<ref name="hounshell-1984" /> Steam-powered factories became widespread, although the conversion from water power to steam occurred in England earlier than in the U.S.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hunter |first=Louis C. |title=A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930, Vol. 2: Steam Power |publisher=University Press of Virginia |year=1985 |location=Charlottesville}}</ref>

===Modern manufacturing===
[[File:Airacobra P39 Assembly LOC 02902u.jpg|thumb|[[Bell Aircraft]]'s assembly plant in [[Wheatfield, New York]] in 1944]]
[[Electrification]] of factories, which had begun gradually in the 1890s after the introduction of the practical [[DC motor]] and the [[AC motor]], was fastest between 1900 and 1930. This was aided by the establishment of electric utilities with central stations and the lowering of electricity prices from 1914 to 1917.<ref name="Jerome 1934">{{Cite book |last=Jerome |first=Harry |title=Mechanization in Industry, National Bureau of Economic Research |year=1934 |page=xxviii}}</ref> [[Electric motor|Electric motors]] allowed more flexibility in manufacturing and required less maintenance than line shafts and belts. Many factories witnessed a 30% increase in output owing to the increasing shift to electric motors. Electrification enabled modern mass production, and the biggest impact of early mass production was in the manufacturing of everyday items, such as at the [[Ball Brothers]] [[Ball Corporation|Glass Manufacturing Company]], which electrified its [[mason jar]] plant in [[Muncie, Indiana]], U.S. around 1900. The new automated process used glass blowing machines to replace 210 craftsman glass blowers and helpers. A small electric truck was now used to handle 150 dozen bottles at a time whereas previously used hand trucks could only carry 6 dozen bottles at a time. Electric mixers replaced men with shovels handling sand and other ingredients that were fed into the glass furnace. An electric overhead crane replaced 36 [[day labor]]ers for moving heavy loads across the factory.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nye |first=David E. |title=Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |year=1990 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England |pages=14, 15}}</ref>

Mass production was popularized in the late 1910s and 1920s by [[Henry Ford]]'s [[Ford Motor Company]],<ref name="hounshell-1984" /> which introduced electric motors to the then-well-known technique of chain or sequential production. Ford also bought or designed and built special purpose machine tools and fixtures such as multiple spindle [[Drill#Drill press|drill presses]] that could drill every hole on one side of an engine block in one operation and a multiple head [[milling machine]] that could simultaneously machine 15 engine blocks held on a single fixture. All of these machine tools were arranged systematically in the production flow and some had special carriages for rolling heavy items into machining positions. Production of the [[Ford Model T]] used 32,000 machine tools.<ref name="Hounshell1984p288">{{Harvnb|Hounshell|1984|p=288}}</ref>

[[Lean manufacturing]], also known as just-in-time manufacturing, was developed in Japan in the 1930s. It is a production method aimed primarily at reducing times within the production system as well as response times from suppliers and to customers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ohno |first=Taiichi |title=Toyota Production System: Beyond Large-Scale Production |date=1988 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-915299-14-0}}</ref><ref name="Shingo">{{Cite book |last=Shingō |first=Shigeo |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/12255263 |title=A Revolution in Manufacturing: The SMED System |date=1985 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=0-915299-03-8 |oclc=12255263 |access-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-date=January 14, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220114151657/http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/12255263 |url-status=live }}</ref> It was introduced in Australia in the 1950s by the British Motor Corporation (Australia) at its Victoria Park plant in Sydney, from where the idea later migrated to Toyota.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 30, 1999 |title=Site of BMC/Leyland Australia Manufacturing Plant: Nomination as an Historic Engineering Marker |url=https://portal.engineersaustralia.org.au/system/files/engineering-heritage-australia/nomination-title/BMC_Plant_Nomination.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210904201027/https://portal.engineersaustralia.org.au/system/files/engineering-heritage-australia/nomination-title/BMC_Plant_Nomination.pdf |archive-date=September 4, 2021 |access-date=July 30, 2021 |publisher=The Institution of Engineers, Australia}}</ref> News spread to western countries from Japan in 1977 in two English-language articles: one referred to the methodology as the "Ohno system", after [[Taiichi Ohno]], who was instrumental in its development within Toyota.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ashburn |first=A. |date=July 1977 |title=Toyota's "famous Ohno system" |journal=American Machinist |pages=120–123}}</ref> The other article, by Toyota authors in an international journal, provided additional details.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sugimori |first1=Y. |last2=Kusunoki |first2=K. |last3=Cho |first3=F. |last4=Uchikawa |first4=S. |year=1977 |title=Toyota Production System and Kanban System: Materialization of Just-in-time and Respect-for-human System |journal= International Journal of Production Research|volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=553–564 |doi=10.1080/00207547708943149 |issn=0020-7543 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Finally, those and other publicity were translated into implementations, beginning in 1980 and then quickly multiplying throughout the industry in the United States and other countries.<ref>{{Cite journal |year=2001 |title=The Founding of the Association for Manufacturing Excellence: Summarized at a Meeting of its Founders, February 2, 2001 |url=https://www.ame.org/sites/default/files/target_articles/01-17-3-Founding_AME.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Target |publisher=Association for Manufacturing Excellence |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=23–24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309053843/https://www.ame.org/sites/default/files/target_articles/01-17-3-Founding_AME.pdf |archive-date=March 9, 2021 |access-date=July 15, 2021}}</ref>

{{anchor|WCM}}The concept of '''world-class manufacturing''' has been promoted by author Richard J. Schonberger.<ref>Schonberger, R. J. (2008: first published in 1986), [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/World_Class_Manufacturing/vZVUoYqs3KoC World Class Manufacturing], New York: Free Press, accessed on 17 May 2025</ref>