Editing Madagascar (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of Madagascar}}

===Early period===
[[File:Malagasy girls Madagascar Merina.jpg|thumb|[[Malagasy people|Malagasy]] ancestry reflects a blend of Southeast Asian, Oceanian and Bantu (Southeast African) roots.]]
Traditionally, archaeologists have estimated that the earliest settlers arrived in successive waves in [[outrigger canoe]]s from [[South Kalimantan|South Borneo]], possibly throughout the period between 350&nbsp;BC and 550&nbsp;AD, while others are cautious about dates earlier than AD 250. In either case, these dates make Madagascar one of the most recent major landmasses on Earth to be settled by humans, predating the settlement of [[Iceland]] and [[New Zealand]].<ref>{{cite journal |last = Crowley |first = B.E. |title = A refined chronology of prehistoric Madagascar and the demise of the megafauna |journal = Quaternary Science Reviews |volume = 29 |issue = 19–20 |pages = 2591–2603 |year = 2010
|doi = 10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.06.030|bibcode = 2010QSRv...29.2591C}}</ref> It is proposed that [[Ma'anyan people]] were brought as laborers and slaves by [[Java]]n and [[Sumatra]]n-[[Malay (ethnic group)|Malays]] in their trading fleets to Madagascar.<ref name="Dewar19932">{{cite journal|last1=Dewar|first1=Robert E.|last2=Wright|first2=Henry T.|date=1993|title=The culture history of Madagascar|journal=Journal of World Prehistory|volume=7|issue=4|pages=417–466|doi=10.1007/bf00997802|hdl-access=free|hdl=2027.42/45256|s2cid=21753825}}</ref><ref name="Burney20042">{{cite journal|vauthors=Burney DA, Burney LP, Godfrey LR, Jungers WL, Goodman SM, Wright HT, Jull AJ|date=August 2004|title=A chronology for late prehistoric Madagascar|journal=Journal of Human Evolution|volume=47|issue=1–2|pages=25–63|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.05.005|pmid=15288523|bibcode=2004JHumE..47...25B }}</ref><ref>Kumar, Ann (2012). 'Dominion Over Palm and Pine: Early Indonesia's Maritime Reach', in Geoff Wade (ed.), ''Anthony Reid and the Study of the Southeast Asian Past'' (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies), 101–122.</ref><ref name="Cox"/> Dates of settlement of the island earlier than the mid-first millennium AD are not strongly supported.<ref name=":4"/> However, there is scattered evidence for much earlier human visits and presence. (See [[History_of_Madagascar#First_inhabitants_and_settlements_(500_BCE–700_CE)|History of Madagascar]]).<ref>{{cite news|date=September 10, 2018|title=Ancient bird bones redate human activity in Madagascar by 6,000 years|url=https://www.zsl.org/science/news/ancient-bird-bones-redate-human-activity-in-madagascar-by-6000-years|newspaper=Zoological Society of London (ZSL)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=September 12, 2018|title=Ancient bird bones redate human activity in Madagascar by 6,000 years|url=https://phys.org/news/2018-09-ancient-bird-bones-redate-human.html|website=Phys.org}}</ref> [[Archaeology|Archaeological]] finds such as cut marks on bones found in the northwest and stone tools in the northeast indicate that Madagascar was visited by foragers around 2000 BCE.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gommery | first1 = D. | last2 = Ramanivosoa | first2 = B. | last3 = Faure | first3 = M. | last4 = Guérin | first4 = C. | last5 = Kerloc'h | first5 = P. | last6 = Sénégas | first6 = F. | last7 = Randrianantenaina | first7 = H. | title = Oldest evidence of human activities in Madagascar on subfossil hippopotamus bones from Anjohibe (Mahajanga Province) | journal = Comptes Rendus Palevol | volume = 10 | issue = 4 | year = 2011 | pages = 271–278 | doi = 10.1016/j.crpv.2011.01.006}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dewar | first1 = R. E. | last2 = Radimilahy | first2 = C. | last3 = Wright | first3 = H. T. | last4 = Jacobs | first4 = Z. | last5 = Kelly | first5 = G. O. | last6 = Berna | first6 = F. | title = Stone tools and foraging in northern Madagascar challenge Holocene extinction models | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 110 | issue = 31 | year = 2013 | pages = 12583–12588 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1306100110 | pmid=23858456 | pmc=3732966| bibcode = 2013PNAS..11012583D | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>Peter Forster, Shuichi Matsumutra, Matthieu Vizuete-Forster, Petya Belinda Blumbach & Robert Dewar (2008) "The Genetic Prehistory of Madagascar's Female Asian Lineages", In: {{cite book|last1=Matsumura|first1=Shūichi|last2=Forster|first2=Peter|last3=Renfrew|first3=Colin|author-link3=Colin Renfrew|title=Simulations, Genetics and Human Prehistory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IR3bAAAAMAAJ|year=2008|publisher=McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research|isbn=978-1-902937-45-8}}, pp71-72</ref> 

Upon arrival, early settlers practiced [[slash-and-burn]] agriculture to clear the coastal rainforests for cultivation. The first settlers encountered Madagascar's abundance of [[Pleistocene megafauna|megafauna]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Human expansion 1,000 years ago linked to Madagascar's loss of large vertebrates |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/11/221104113440.htm |work=ScienceDaily |date=4 November 2022 |access-date=6 November 2022 |archive-date=6 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221106001734/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/11/221104113440.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> including 17 species of [[Subfossil lemur|giant lemurs]], the large flightless [[elephant bird]]s (including possibly the largest bird to ever exist, ''[[Aepyornis maximus]]''), the [[Cryptoprocta spelea|giant fossa]], and several species of [[Malagasy hippopotamus]], which have since become extinct because of hunting and habitat destruction.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Virah-Sawmy |first = M. |author2 = Willis, K. J.|author3=Gillson, L. |title = Evidence for drought and forest declines during the recent megafaunal extinctions in Madagascar |journal = Journal of Biogeography |volume = 37 |pages = 506–519 |year = 2010 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02203.x |issue = 3|bibcode = 2010JBiog..37..506V |s2cid = 84382916 }}</ref> By 600&nbsp;AD, groups of these early settlers had begun clearing the forests of the central highlands.<ref name=Camp93>{{cite journal |last = Campbell |first = Gwyn |title = The Structure of Trade in Madagascar, 1750–1810 |journal = The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume = 26 |issue = 1 |pages = 111–148 |year = 1993 |doi = 10.2307/219188 |jstor = 219188 }}</ref>

Arab traders first reached the island between the 7th and 9th centuries.<ref name=Wink>Wink (2004), p. 185</ref> A wave of [[Bantu languages|Bantu]]-speaking migrants from southeastern Africa arrived around the year 1000.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pierron|first1=Denis|last2=Heiske|first2=Margit|last3=Razafindrazaka|first3=Harilanto|last4=Rakoto|first4=Ignace|last5=Rabetokotany|first5=Nelly|last6=Ravololomanga|first6=Bodo|last7=Rakotozafy|first7=Lucien M.-A.|last8=Rakotomalala|first8=Mireille Mialy|last9=Razafiarivony|first9=Michel|last10=Rasoarifetra|first10=Bako|last11=Raharijesy|first11=Miakabola Andriamampianina|date=8 August 2017|title=Genomic landscape of human diversity across Madagascar|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=114|issue=32|pages=E6498–E6506|doi=10.1073/pnas.1704906114|issn=0027-8424|pmc=5559028|pmid=28716916|bibcode=2017PNAS..114E6498P |doi-access=free}}</ref> Around this time, [[zebu]] from [[South India]] were first brought, intermingling with [[Sanga cattle|sanga]] found in East Africa.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Magnier |first=Jessica |year=2022 |title=The genetic history of Mayotte and Madagascar cattle breeds mirrors the complex pattern of human exchanges in Western Indian Ocean |url=https://academic.oup.com/g3journal/article/12/4/jkac029/6523972?login=false |journal=G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics |volume=12 |issue=4|doi=10.1093/g3journal/jkac029 |pmid=35137043 |pmc=8982424 }}</ref> [[File:Omby soavaly.jpg|thumb|right|A Malagasy man riding an ''omby soavaly'' (zebu) in central Madagascar in the 19th century.]]Irrigated paddy fields were developed in the central highland [[Betsileo]] Kingdom and were extended with terraced paddies throughout the neighboring Kingdom of [[Imerina]] a century later.<ref name=Camp93/> The rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu pasturage had largely transformed the central highlands from a forest ecosystem to grassland by the 17th century.<ref name="Gade 1996">{{cite journal |last=Gade |first=Daniel W. |year=1996 |title=Deforestation and its effects in Highland Madagascar |journal=Mountain Research and Development |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=101–116 |doi=10.2307/3674005 |jstor=3674005}}</ref>

The oral histories of the Merina people, who arrived in the central highlands between 600 and 1,000 years ago, describe encountering an established population they called the [[Vazimba]]. Probably the descendants of an earlier and less technologically advanced Austronesian settlement wave, the Vazimba were assimilated or expelled from the highlands by the Merina kings [[Andriamanelo]], [[Ralambo]], and [[Andrianjaka]] in the 16th and early 17th centuries.<ref name=vazimbadjp>{{cite web |last = Domenichini |first = J.P. |title = Antehiroka et Royauté Vazimba |work = Express de Madagascar |publisher = Madatana.com |url = http://www.madatana.com/article-antehiroka-et-royaute-vazimba.php |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110714013559/http://www.madatana.com/article-antehiroka-et-royaute-vazimba.php |archive-date = 14 July 2011 |url-status=live |access-date =5 November 2010|language=fr}}</ref> Today, the spirits of the Vazimba are revered as ''tompontany'' (ancestral masters of the land) by many traditional Malagasy communities.<ref name="Mythe">{{cite web |last = Razafimahazo |first = S. |title = Vazimba: Mythe ou Realité? |work = Revue de l'Océan Indien |publisher = Madatana.com |year = 2011 |url = http://www.madatana.com/article-vazimba-mythe-ou-realite.php |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110714013401/http://www.madatana.com/article-vazimba-mythe-ou-realite.php |archive-date = 14 July 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date = 8 November 2010 |language = fr }}</ref>

===Arab and European contacts===
[[File:Detail_of_Diogo_Dias's_ship_(Cabral_Armada).jpg|thumb|left|European contact began in 1500 when [[Portuguese discoveries|Portuguese explorer]] [[Diogo Dias]] recorded the island while participating in the [[2nd Portuguese India Armada (Cabral, 1500)|2nd Portuguese India Armadas]].]]

The [[Recorded history|written history]] of Madagascar began with the Arabs, who established trading posts along the northwest coast by at least the 10th century and introduced [[Islam]], the [[Arabic script]] (used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as ''[[sorabe]]''), Arab astrology, and other cultural elements.<ref name="LOC"/>
The Arabs also contributed to the blood mixture that today forms the Malagasy people. As masters of the entire African coastline, they repeatedly sent numerous migrations to the island, using the Comoros Islands as stopovers. Their traces can still be found along all the coasts, although it is doubtful that they ever penetrated far inland, since their colonies were founded mainly for commercial purposes. The Arabs primarily bought slaves, especially [[Merina people|Hova]] slaves from the center of the island for the [[Indian Ocean slave trade|Indian Ocean markets]]. They were never able to convert the indigenous population to Islam, but they did manage to introduce some Muslim practices into local customs, which became widespread across the island. These included circumcision, abstaining from eating pork, and aversion of dogs.These customs led some early European travelers to wrongly believe that several tribes followed the doctrine of [[Muhammad]]. <ref>Grandidier, Alfred, and Guillaume Grandidier. ''Collection des ouvrages anciens concernant Madagascar'', vol. II, pp. 90–91. Paris, 1904.</ref><ref>Barbié du Bocage, V. A. ''Madagascar, possession française depuis 1642'', pp. 66–67, 85. Paris: Arthus Bertrand, Libraire de la Société de Géographie, 21 rue Hautefeuille.</ref>
European contact began in 1500, when the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] sea captain [[Diogo Dias]] sighted the island, while participating in the [[2nd Portuguese India Armada (Cabral, 1500)|2nd Armada]] of the [[Portuguese India Armadas]].<ref name="BGNote" /> In 1506, the Portuguese failed in their attempts to destroy Arab-[[Antalaotra]] settlements in Northern Madagascar despite violent raids led by [[Tristão da Cunha]] and [[Afonso de Albuquerque]]. Portuguese efforts of Christianization there also failed when their missionaries were massacred by natives. The Portuguese then resorted to the slave trade, buying slaves from the Arabs or [[Antalaotra]] when they did not acquire them directly through deceit or violence.  <ref>Gérard Naal, ''Abrégé d'histoire de Madagascar'', L'Harmattan, 2015, p. 20</ref><ref>Hubert Deschamps, ''Histoire de Madagascar'', p. 63</ref>
When the enterprise of colonization in the northwestern Madagascar was undone, the 
Portuguese, directed their ambition toward the southeastern coasts.
In 1548, the Portuguese made an unsuccessful attempt to establish a settlement in the bay of Ranofotsy or Gallions bay in [[Anosy]]. The expedition ended in tragedy when Portuguese sailors and missionaries were attacked and massacred by the [[Antanosy]] people. The few survivors sought refuge in a stone house they had constructed and managed to defend themselves. In retaliation, they launched frequent raids on nearby villages, burning homes and demanding ransoms from local Inhabitants until they were rescued by Portuguese ships. 

At the same time, another violent incident occurred in the [[Fitovinany|Matatana]] region, where 80 Portuguese settlers were killed in a separate massacre by the [[Zafiraminia|locals]]. These tragic events likely discouraged further Portuguese expeditions to Madagascar for several decades.<ref>Malotet, Arthur. ''Étienne de Flacourt, ou Les Origines de la Colonisation Française à Madagascar (1648–1661)''. Paris: 1898, p. 15.</ref><ref name="SLG1891">''Bulletin trimestriel – Société languedocienne de géographie'', vol. 14, 1891, p. 620.</ref>

During this period, [[Iberian Union|Portugal came under the rule of Spain]], which focused primarily on its colonies in the Americas and the lucrative Spice Islands. As a result, Madagascar—seen as less economically valuable—was largely neglected. Substantial Portuguese activity on the island did not resume until the early 17th century.

[[File:Matatana.jpg|thumb|Matatana 
 settlement of the beginning of the 16th century where Portuguese were massacred in 1548]]
The Portuguese, who had not yet founded any establishment in Madagascar, yet fervently desired to do so through evangelization. In 1613, they found their wishes nearly realized when [[Andriandramaka]], the son of the king of Fanshere Andriatsiambany  having lately forged friendly relations with the Portuguese arrived in their city of Goa as a hostage.
The king agreed to send his son Andriandramaka to Goa, while two missionaries and four Portuguese stayed as hostages on Santa-Cruz, near [[Sainte Luce Reserve|Saint-Lucas]]. The king gave Santa-Cruz to the missionaries to build a church.

The young prince from Fanshere was treated kindly in Goa by Viceroy [[Jerónimo de Azevedo]]. He was educated by Jesuit priests and baptized. He promised that, if he could return to his homeland, he would convince his father to accept an alliance with the Portuguese and to adopt Christianity. People believed he would keep his promise.

In 1615, the viceroy prepared four large ships with around 100 soldiers and four Jesuit missionaries. The mission's goal was to spread the Christian faith in Fanshere. The fleet left Goa with high hopes.
However, less than a year later, the ships returned. The mission had failed. The Jesuit priests advised leaving because the people of Fanshère had not welcomed them. 
The king, persuaded by the [[Soothsayer|Ombiasses—priests]] completely changed his attitude towards the Portuguese. He even forbade his subjects to give or sell any food to the foreigners. This left the Portuguese in a desperate situation.
One of the missionaries soon died, and another, along with six companions, quickly left on a Portuguese ship to return to India. 
The new failure of the expedition from Goa, added to others like it, discouraged Portugal. Seeing Madagascar only as a graveyard for its soldiers, Portugal decided to abandon it for good. This left the island open for other nations to try, at their own risk, to conquer it.<ref>La Vaissière, Camille de. ''Histoire de Madagascar: ses habitants et ses missionnaires'', vol. 1, 1884, pp. 1–7.</ref>

At that time, the English and the Dutch were competing for control of the Indian Empire. From 1618 to 1640, these two Protestant nations tried to establish rival settlements on various parts of the island and nearby islands. However, their colonization efforts, which were not very serious, ended in ruins and abandonment.

The Dutch, who settled on the east coast near Antongil Bay and Sainte-Marie, died of malaria or were killed by the Malagasy people. <ref>''The North British Review'', Volumes 6 and 7, 1847, page 76.</ref>
In 1646, out of 140 settlers led by John Smart to Saint Augustine Bay (now Toliara), only 63 survived. The others died from disease, hunger—like the fate of the Portuguese in Anosy or were killed by the locals.

In 1649, a second English colony attempt by Robert Hunt at Assada (present-day Nosy Be) also ended with the massacre of the settlers, often by trickery. The Malagasy were very harsh toward Europeans. In 1686, English pirates who came to Nosy Be to for partying were massacred by the locals because of mistreatment by a previous English crew. The only survivor was Robert Everard, who became a slave to a local king. He only gained his freedom when he was sold to an Arab trader, and then resold to an Englishman in Muscat after spending two years on the island.<ref>Tyson, Peter. ''Madagascar: The Eighth Continent – Life, Death and Discovery in a Lost World''. Chalfont St Peter: Bradt Travel Guides, 2013, pp. 43–44, 87.</ref><ref>Royal Anthropological Institute. ''The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute'', vol. 12, 1882, p. 482.</ref><ref>''The New American Cyclopaedia: A Popular Dictionary of General Knowledge'', vol. 11, 1858, p. 27.</ref>


The French established trading posts along the east coast in the late 17th century.<ref name="LOC" /> From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar gained prominence among pirates and European traders, particularly those involved in the [[Atlantic slave trade|trans-Atlantic slave trade]]. The small island of [[Nosy Boraha]] (Île Sainte-Marie) off the northeastern coast of Madagascar is believed to be where the English pirate [[Henry Every]] founded his kingdom and reigned as Pirate King or Emperor. <ref>Jan Rogozinski, Honor among thieves: Captain Kidd, Henry Every, and the Pirate Democracy in the Indian Ocean, p.80</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://digitalcollections.wesleyan.edu/object/ir-1086 |title=Every Kidd Has His Day: A Story of How Pirates Forced the English to Reevaluate Their Foreign Policy in the Indian Ocean (1690-1700) |access-date= |author=Brewer, Benjamin Heymann |date=2010-04-15 |publisher= |website=digitalcollections.wesleyan.edu |page=45}}</ref> [[Antsiranana Bay]] (Diego Suarez Bay) in northern Madagascar is rumored to be the site where the French pirate Misson founded his legendary pirate utopia, [[Libertalia]]. <ref>{{Cite web |title=Pirates & Privateers - Captain Misson & Libertalia |url=http://www.cindyvallar.com/Misson.html |website=www.cindyvallar.com |access-date=}}</ref> Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among them [[Robert Drury (sailor)|Robert Drury]], whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century.<ref>Kent (1976), pp.&nbsp;65–71</ref> European accounts until the early 20th century [[Jews in Madagascar#The "Jewish thesis"|identified Malagasy people as being of Jewish origin]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jennings |first=Eric T. |date=2017 |title=Perspectives on French Colonial Madagascar |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/978-1-137-55967-8 |journal=SpringerLink |language=en |doi=10.1057/978-1-137-55967-8 |isbn=978-1-137-59690-1 |access-date=6 March 2024 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427035701/https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/978-1-137-55967-8 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The wealth generated by maritime trade spurred the rise of organized kingdoms on the island, some of which had grown quite powerful by the 17th century.<ref name=":2">{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/madg_1/hd_madg_1.htm |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110624105133/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/madg_1/hd_madg_1.htm |archive-date = 24 June 2011 |url-status=live |title=Kingdoms of Madagascar: Maroserana and Merina |date = October 2003 |publisher=Metmuseum.org |access-date=25 April 2010}}</ref> Among these were the [[Betsimisaraka people|Betsimisaraka]] alliance of the eastern coast and the [[Sakalava]] chiefdoms of [[Menabe]] and [[Boina Kingdom|Boina]] on the west coast. The Kingdom of Imerina, located in the central highlands with its capital at the [[Rova of Antananarivo|royal palace]] of Antananarivo, emerged at around the same time under the leadership of King Andriamanelo.<ref name="Ogot">Ogot (1992), p. 418</ref>

===Kingdom of Madagascar===
{{Main|Merina Kingdom}}
[[File:Andrianampoinimerina HQ.jpg|thumb|King [[Andrianampoinimerina]] (1787–1810)]]
Upon its emergence in the early 17th century, the highland kingdom of Imerina was initially a minor power relative to the larger coastal kingdoms<ref name="Ogot"/> and grew even weaker in the early 18th century when King [[Andriamasinavalona]] divided it among his four sons. Following almost a century of warring and famine, Imerina was reunited in 1793 by King [[Andrianampoinimerina]] (1787–1810).<ref name="Hodder">Hodder (1982), p. 59</ref> From his initial capital [[Ambohimanga]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/950 |title=Royal Hill of Ambohimanga |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |access-date=30 April 2011|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110629070952/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/950/|url-status=live |archive-date = 29 June 2011}}</ref> and later from the [[Rova of Antananarivo]], this Merina king rapidly expanded his rule over neighbouring principalities. His ambition to bring the entire island under his control was largely achieved by his son and successor, King [[Radama I]] (1810–28), who was recognized by the British government as King of Madagascar. Radama concluded a treaty in 1817 with the British governor of [[Mauritius]] to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance. Artisan missionary envoys from the [[London Missionary Society]] began arriving in 1818 and included such key figures as [[James Cameron (missionary)|James Cameron]], [[David Jones (missionary)|David Jones]] and [[David Griffiths (missionary)|David Griffiths]], who established schools, transcribed the [[Malagasy language]] using the [[Latin alphabet|Roman alphabet]], translated the Bible, and introduced a variety of new technologies to the island.<ref name="Ade Ajayi 1998, pp. 413–422">Ade Ajayi (1998), pp.&nbsp;413–422</ref>

Radama's successor, Queen [[Ranavalona I]] (1828–61), responded to increasing political and cultural encroachment on the part of Britain and France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of [[Christianity in Madagascar]] and pressuring most foreigners to leave the territory. [[William Ellis (British missionary)|William Ellis]] of the [[London Missionary Society]] described his visits made during her reign in his book ''Three Visits to Madagascar during the years 1853, 1854, and 1856''. The Queen made heavy use of the traditional practice of ''[[Corvée|fanompoana]]'' (forced labor as tax payment) to complete public works projects and develop a standing army of between 20,000 and 30,000 [[Merina]] soldiers, whom she deployed to pacify outlying regions of the island and further expand the Kingdom of Merina to encompass most of Madagascar. Residents of Madagascar could accuse one another of various crimes, including theft, Christianity and especially witchcraft, for which the ordeal of ''[[tangena]]'' was routinely obligatory. Between 1828 and 1861, the ''tangena'' ordeal caused about 3,000 deaths annually. In 1838, it was estimated that as many as 100,000 people in Imerina died as a result of the tangena ordeal, constituting roughly 20 percent of the population.<ref name="Stats">{{cite journal | last = Campbell | first = Gwyn | date = October 1991 | title = The state and pre-colonial demographic history: the case of nineteenth-century Madagascar | journal = Journal of African History | volume = 23 | issue = 3 | pages = 415–445| doi = 10.1017/S0021853700031534 }}</ref> The combination of regular warfare, disease, difficult forced labor, and harsh measures of justice resulted in a high mortality rate among soldiers and civilians alike during her 33-year reign; the population of Madagascar is estimated to have declined from around 5&nbsp;million to 2.5&nbsp;million between 1833 and 1839.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Campbell |first = Gwyn |date = October 1991 |title = The state and pre-colonial demographic history: the case of nineteenth century Madagascar |journal = Journal of African History |volume = 23 |issue = 3 |pages = 415–445|doi = 10.1017/S0021853700031534 }}</ref>

Among those who continued to reside in Imerina were [[Jean Laborde]], an entrepreneur who developed munitions and other industries on behalf of the monarchy, and [[Joseph-François Lambert]], a French adventurer and slave trader, with whom then-Prince [[Radama II]] signed a controversial trade agreement termed the Lambert Charter. Succeeding his mother, Radama II attempted to relax the queen's stringent policies but was [[Radama II#Assassination plot|overthrown]] two years later by Prime Minister [[Rainivoninahitriniony]] and an alliance of ''[[Andriana]]'' (noble) and ''[[Hova (Madagascar)|Hova]]'' (commoner) courtiers, who sought to end the absolute power of the monarch.<ref name="LOC"/>

Following the coup, the courtiers offered Radama's queen, [[Rasoherina]], the opportunity to rule, if she would accept a power-sharing arrangement with the Prime Minister: a new social contract that would be sealed by a political marriage between them.<ref>Oliver (1886), pp. 124–126</ref> Queen Rasoherina accepted, first marrying Rainivoninahitriniony, then later deposing him and marrying his brother, Prime Minister [[Rainilaiarivony]], who would go on to marry Queen [[Ranavalona II]] and Queen [[Ranavalona III]] in succession.<ref>Uwechue (1981), p. 473</ref> 

Over the course of Rainilaiarivony's 31-year tenure as prime minister, numerous policies were adopted to modernize and consolidate the power of the central government.<ref name="TA910" /> Schools were constructed throughout the island and attendance was made mandatory. Army organization was improved and British consultants were employed to train and professionalize soldiers.<ref name="FFO522">Fage, Flint & Oliver (1986), pp. 522–524</ref> [[Polygamy]] was outlawed and Christianity declared the official religion of the court in 1869, was adopted alongside traditional beliefs among a growing portion of the populace.<ref name="TA910">Thompson & Adloff (1965), pp. 9–10</ref> Legal codes were reformed on the basis of British [[common law]] and three European-style courts were established in the capital city.<ref name="FFO522" /> In his joint role as Commander-in-Chief, Rainilaiarivony also successfully ensured the defense of Madagascar against several French colonial incursions.<ref name="FFO522" />

===French colonization===
{{Main|Malagasy Protectorate|French Madagascar}} {{See also|Madagascar in World War II}}

[[File:LaGuerreAMadagascar.jpg|thumb|right|upright|A French poster about the Second [[Franco-Hova Wars|Franco-Hova War]]]]
Primarily on the basis that the Lambert Charter had not been respected, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first [[Franco-Hova War]].<ref name="Boogaerde p7">Van Den Boogaerde (2008), p. 7</ref> At the end of the war, Madagascar ceded the northern port town of [[Antsiranana]] (Diego Suarez) to France and paid 560,000 francs to Lambert's heirs.<ref name="Randier p400">Randier (2006), p. 400</ref> In 1890, the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French [[protectorate]] on the island, but French authority was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar. To force capitulation, the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of [[Toamasina]] on the east coast, and [[Mahajanga]] on the west coast, in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively.<ref name=Disease>Curtin (1998), p. 186</ref>

A French military [[flying column]] then marched toward Antananarivo, losing many men to malaria and other diseases. Reinforcements came from [[Algeria]] and [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]. Upon reaching the city in September 1895, the column bombarded the royal palace with heavy artillery, causing heavy casualties and leading Queen Ranavalona III to surrender.<ref>Oliver, Fage & Sanderson (1985), p. 529</ref> Popular resistance to the French capture of [[Antananarivo]]—known as the [[Menalamba rebellion]]—broke out in December 1895, and was not suppressed until the end of 1897.<ref>Oliver, Fage & Sanderson (1985), p. 532</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Campbell |first=Gwyn |date=1991 |title=The Menalamba Revolt and Brigandry in Imperial Madagascar, 1820-1897 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219791 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=259–291 |doi=10.2307/219791 |jstor=219791 |issn=0361-7882 |access-date=6 June 2024 |archive-date=1 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231001210237/https://www.jstor.org/stable/219791 |url-status=live }}</ref> France annexed Madagascar in 1896 and declared the island a colony the following year, dissolving the Merina monarchy and sending the royal family into exile on [[Réunion|Réunion Island]] and to Algeria. 

The conquest was followed by ten years of civil war, due to the Menalamba insurrection. The "pacification" carried out by the French administration lasted more than fifteen years, in response to the rural guerrillas scattered throughout the country. In total, the repression of this resistance to colonial conquest caused several tens of thousands of Malagasy victims.<ref>Jacques Tronchon. L'insurrection malgache de 1947. Essai d'interprétation historique, p 35–45</ref>

Under colonial rule, plantations were established for the production of a variety of export crops.<ref>Campbell (2005), p. 107</ref> [[Slavery]] was abolished in 1896 and approximately 500,000 slaves were freed; many remained in their former masters' homes as servants<ref>Shillington (2005), p. 878</ref> or as sharecroppers; in many parts of the island strong discriminatory views against slave descendants are still held today.<ref>Regnier (2015), pp. 152–154</ref> Wide paved boulevards and gathering places were constructed in the capital city of Antananarivo<ref>Fournet-Guérin (2007), pp. 45–54</ref> and the Rova palace compound was turned into a museum.<ref name="Frémigacci">Frémigacci (1999), pp. 421–444</ref> Additional schools were built, particularly in rural and coastal areas where the schools of the Merina had not reached. Education became mandatory between the ages of 6 and 13 and focused primarily on the French language and practical skills.<ref>Gallieni (1908), pp. 341–343</ref>
[[File:29 Mars 1947 Monument.jpg|thumb|National monument in [[Moramanga]] commemorating the beginning of the [[Malagasy Uprising]] on 29 March 1947. Between 11,000 and 90,000 Malagasy died during the uprising which lasted nearly two years.<ref>{{cite book |first=Travis |last=Hannibal |year=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NbWdlRL8WzMC&pg=PA138 |title=Genocide, Ethnonationalism, and the United Nations: Exploring the Causes of Mass Killing Since 1945 |publisher=Routledge |page=138 |isbn=9780415531252 |access-date=23 June 2021 |archive-date=24 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624212928/https://books.google.com/books?id=NbWdlRL8WzMC&pg=PA138 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

Huge mining and forestry concessions were granted to large companies. Native chiefs loyal to the French administration were also granted part of the land. Forced labor was introduced in favor of the French companies and peasants were encouraged, through taxation, to work for wages (especially in the colonial concessions) to the detriment of small individual farms. However, the colonial period was accompanied by movements fighting for independence: the Menalamba, the Vy Vato Sakelika, the Democratic Movement for Malagasy Renovation (MDRM). In 1927, major demonstrations were organized in Antananarivo, notably on the initiative of the communist activist François Vittori, who was imprisoned as a result. The 1930s saw the Malagasy anti-colonial movement gain further momentum. Malagasy trade unionism began to appear underground and the Communist Party of the Madagascar region was formed. But in 1939, all the organizations were dissolved by the administration of the colony, which opted for the Vichy regime. The MDRM was accused by the colonial regime of being at the origin of the 1947 insurrection and was pursued by violent repression.<ref>Jacques Tronchon. L'insurrection malgache de 1947. Essai d'interprétation historique, p 35-45</ref>

The Merina royal tradition of [[Corvée|taxes paid in the form of labor]] was continued under the French and used to construct a railway and roads linking key coastal cities to Antananarivo.<ref>Reinsch (1905), p. 377</ref> Malagasy troops fought for France in [[World War I]].<ref name=BGNote/> In the 1930s, [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] political thinkers developed the [[Madagascar Plan]] that had identified the island as a potential site for the deportation of Europe's Jews.<ref name="contemplation">Browning (2004), pp. 81–89</ref> During the [[Second World War]], the island was the site of the [[Battle of Madagascar]] between the [[Vichy France|Vichy French]] and an [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] expeditionary force.<ref>Kennedy (2007), pp. 511–512</ref>

The occupation of France during the Second World War tarnished the prestige of the colonial administration in Madagascar and galvanized the growing independence movement, leading to the [[Malagasy Uprising]] of 1947.<ref>Lehoullier (2010), p. 107</ref> This movement led the French to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under the ''[[Loi Cadre]]'' (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence.<ref name="Kitchen 1962, p. 256">Kitchen (1962), p. 256</ref> The [[Malagasy Republic]] was proclaimed on 14 October 1958, as an [[autonomous entity|autonomous]] state within the [[French Community]]. A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on 26 June 1960.<ref>Pryor (1990), pp. 209–210</ref>

===Independent state===
{{Main|Malagasy Republic|Democratic Republic of Madagascar|Third Republic of Madagascar}}
[[File:Philibert Tsiranana 1962.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Philibert Tsiranana]], the first [[List of Presidents of Madagascar|president of Madagascar]] (1960–1972)]]
Since regaining independence, Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution. The [[Malagasy Republic|First Republic]] (1960–72), under the leadership of French-appointed President [[Philibert Tsiranana]], was characterized by a continuation of strong economic and political ties to France. Many high-level technical positions were filled by French expatriates, and French teachers, textbooks and curricula continued to be used in schools around the country. Popular resentment over Tsiranana's tolerance for this "neo-colonial" arrangement inspired a [[rotaka|series of farmer and student protests]] that overturned his administration in 1972.<ref name="LOC"/>

[[Gabriel Ramanantsoa]], a major general in the army, was appointed interim president and prime minister that same year, but low public approval forced him to step down in 1975. Colonel [[Richard Ratsimandrava]], appointed to succeed him, was assassinated six days into his tenure. General [[Gilles Andriamahazo]] ruled after Ratsimandrava for four months before being replaced by another military appointee: Vice Admiral [[Didier Ratsiraka]], who ushered in the Marxist–Leninist [[Democratic Republic of Madagascar|Second Republic]] that ran under his tenure from 1975 to 1993.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lechodusud.com/post/%C3%A9lection-pr%C3%A9sidentielle-%C3%A0-madagascar-les-ratsiraka-une-famille-divis%C3%A9e |url-status=dead |title=Élection présidentielle à Madagascar: les Ratsiraka, une famille divisée |access-date=26 August 2023 |work=[[L'Écho du Sud]] |language=fr |archive-date=26 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230826105935/https://www.lechodusud.com/post/%C3%A9lection-pr%C3%A9sidentielle-%C3%A0-madagascar-les-ratsiraka-une-famille-divis%C3%A9e }}</ref>

This period saw a political alignment with the [[Eastern Bloc]] countries and a shift toward economic insularity. These policies, coupled with economic pressures stemming from the [[1973 oil crisis]], resulted in the rapid collapse of Madagascar's economy and a sharp decline in living standards,<ref name="LOC"/> and the country had become completely bankrupt by 1979. The Ratsiraka administration accepted the conditions of transparency, anti-corruption measures and free market policies imposed by the International Monetary Fund, [[World Bank]] and various bilateral donors in exchange for their bailout of the nation's broken economy.<ref name=ISS/>

Ratsiraka's dwindling popularity in the late 1980s reached a critical point in 1991 when presidential guards opened fire on unarmed protesters during a rally. Within two months, a transitional government had been established under the leadership of [[Albert Zafy]] (1993–96), who went on to win the 1992 presidential elections and inaugurate the [[Third Republic of Madagascar|Third Republic]] (1992–2010).<ref name="crisisgroup">{{cite web |url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/africa/southern-africa/madagascar/166%20Madagascar%20a%20un%20tournant%20critique.ashx |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110725204902/http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/africa/southern-africa/madagascar/166%20Madagascar%20a%20un%20tournant%20critique.ashx |archive-date = 25 July 2011 |url-status=dead |title=Madagascar: La Crise a un Tournant Critique? |access-date=25 November 2010 |work=International Crisis Group |language=fr}}</ref> The new [[constitution of Madagascar|Madagascar constitution]] established a multi-party democracy and a separation of powers that placed significant control in the hands of the National Assembly. The new constitution also emphasized human rights, social and political freedoms, and free trade.<ref name="LOC"/> Zafy's term, however, was marred by economic decline, allegations of corruption, and his introduction of legislation to give himself greater powers. He was consequently [[Impeachment|impeached]] in 1996, and an interim president, [[Norbert Ratsirahonana]], was appointed for the three months prior to the next presidential election. Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms for a second term which lasted from 1996 to 2001.<ref name=ISS>{{cite journal |last = Marcus |first = Richard |title = Political change in Madagascar: populist democracy or neopatrimonialism by another name? |journal = Occasional Paper No. 89 |publisher = Institute for Security Studies |date = August 2004 |url = http://www.issafrica.org/publications/papers/political-change-in-madagascar-populist-democracy-or-neopatrimonialism-by-another-name |access-date =15 February 2012 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040907223329/http://www.iss.org.za/pubs/papers/89/Paper89.htm |archive-date = 7 September 2004}}</ref>

The contested [[Malagasy presidential election, 2001|2001 presidential elections]] in which then-mayor of Antananarivo, Marc Ravalomanana, eventually emerged victorious, caused a seven-month standoff in 2002 between supporters of Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka. The negative economic impact of the political crisis was gradually overcome by Ravalomanana's progressive economic and political policies, which encouraged investments in education and ecotourism, facilitated foreign direct investment, and cultivated trading partnerships both regionally and internationally. National GDP grew at an average rate of 7&nbsp;percent per year under his administration. In the latter half of his second term, Ravalomanana was criticised by domestic and international observers who accused him of increasing [[authoritarianism]] and corruption.<ref name=ISS/>

Opposition leader and then-mayor of Antananarivo, [[Andry Rajoelina]], led a [[2009 Malagasy political crisis|movement in early 2009]] in which Ravalomanana was pushed from power in an unconstitutional process widely condemned as a ''coup d'état''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ratsimbaharison|first=Adrien|title=The Political Crisis of March 2009 in Madagascar: A Case Study of Conflict and Conflict Mediation|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2017|isbn=978-1-4422-7235-4|location=Lanham, Boulder, New York, London}}</ref> In March 2009, Rajoelina was declared by the Supreme Court as the President of the [[High Transitional Authority]], an interim governing body responsible for moving the country toward presidential elections. In 2010, a new constitution was [[Malagasy constitutional referendum, 2010|adopted by referendum]], establishing a Fourth Republic, which sustained the democratic, multi-party structure established in the previous constitution.<ref name="crisisgroup"/> [[Hery Rajaonarimampianina]] was declared the winner of the [[Malagasy general election, 2013|2013 presidential election]], which the international community deemed fair and transparent.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/apps/newsFr/storyF.asp?NewsID=31715&Cr=Madagascar&Cr1=#.UrVg67Sp6RM |title=Centre d'actualités de l'ONU – Madagascar : l'ONU salue le bon déroulement du deuxième tour des élections présidentielles |publisher=Un.org |date=20 December 2013 |access-date=28 June 2017 |archive-date=3 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703112119/http://www.un.org/apps/newsFr/storyF.asp?NewsID=31715&Cr=Madagascar&Cr1=#.UrVg67Sp6RM |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2018 the first round of the [[2018 Malagasy presidential election|presidential election]] was held on 7 November and the second round was held on 10 December. Three former presidents and the most recent president were the main candidates of the elections. Rajoelina won the second round of the elections. Ravalomana lost the second round and he did not accept the results because of allegations of fraud. Rajaonarimampianina received very modest support in the first round. In January 2019 the High Constitutional Court declared Rajoelina as the winner of the elections and the new president.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/11/6/madagascar-presidential-election-what-you-need-to-know |title=All you need to know about high-stakes Madagascar poll |access-date=30 March 2021 |archive-date=30 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330034449/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/11/6/madagascar-presidential-election-what-you-need-to-know |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/1/8/madagascar-court-declares-rajoelina-as-election-winner |title=Madagascar court declares Rajoelina as election winner |access-date=30 March 2021 |archive-date=21 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121032738/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/1/8/madagascar-court-declares-rajoelina-as-election-winner |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.africanews.com/2018/12/28/madagascar-starts-voting-in-tight-presidential-race/ |title=Madagascar: Ravalomanana challenges results in court, Rajoelina calls for calm |date=28 December 2018 |access-date=30 March 2021 |archive-date=8 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108124618/https://www.africanews.com/2018/12/28/madagascar-starts-voting-in-tight-presidential-race// |url-status=live }}</ref>
In June 2019 [[2019 Malagasy parliamentary election|parliamentary elections]] the Rajoelina's won absolute majority of the seats of the National Assembly. It received 84 seats and the supporters of former president Ravalomana got only 16 seats of 151 seats of the National Assembly. 51 seats of deputies were independent or represented small parties. Rajoelina could rule as a [[Strongman (politics)|strongman]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.africanews.com/2019/06/15/madagascar-president-assured-of-winning-majority-seats-in-parliament/ |title=Madagascar President assured of winning majority seats in parliament |date=15 June 2019 |access-date=30 March 2021 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030200649/https://www.africanews.com/2019/06/15/madagascar-president-assured-of-winning-majority-seats-in-parliament/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

Mid-2021 marked the beginning of the [[2021–2022 Madagascar famine]] which, due to a severe drought, caused hundreds of thousands of people to face [[Food security|food insecurity]] and over one million people were on the verge of a [[famine]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Januta |first1=Andrea |title=Madagascar food crisis caused more by poverty, natural weather than climate change – study |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/cop/madagascar-food-crisis-caused-more-by-poverty-natural-weather-than-climate-2021-12-01/ |work=Reuters |date=1 December 2021 |language=en |access-date=25 January 2022 |archive-date=25 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125102959/https://www.reuters.com/business/cop/madagascar-food-crisis-caused-more-by-poverty-natural-weather-than-climate-2021-12-01/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In November 2023, Rajoelina was re-elected to another term with 58.95% of the vote in the first round of the [[2023 Malagasy presidential election|election]] amidst an opposition boycott and a controversy about his acquisition of French citizenship and subsequent eligibility. Turnout was 46.36%, the lowest in a presidential election in the country's history.<ref>{{cite web |date=25 November 2023 |title=Andry Rajoelina: Madagascar president re-elected in contested poll |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-67517143 |access-date=26 November 2023 |work=BBC News |archive-date=5 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231205020853/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-67517143 |url-status=live }}</ref>