Editing Mackinac Bridge (section)

==History==

===Early history===
[[File:'Vacationland', newest and largest car ferry added to Straits of Mackinaw fleet.jpg|thumb|''[[Vacationland (ferry)|Vacationland]]'', the largest and last [[Michigan State Highway Department]] [[Roll-on/roll-off|automobile ferry]] put in service prior to the completion of the Mackinac Bridge]]

The [[Algonquian peoples]] who lived in the straits area prior to the arrival of Europeans in the 17th century called this region ''[[Michilimackinac]]'', which is widely understood to mean ''Place of the Great Turtle.''<ref>{{cite web |title = History: Mackinac Island |date = May 15, 2023 |url = https://www.mackinacisland.org/blog/countdown-to-2020-a-look-at-mackinac-history-through-the-centuries/ |access-date = February 9, 2024 |publisher = Mackinac Island Tourism Bureau |language = en-US }}</ref> This is thought to refer to the shape of what is now called [[Mackinac Island]]. This interpretation of the word is debated by scholars. Trading posts at the Straits of Mackinac attracted peak populations during the summer trading season; they also developed as intertribal meeting places.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.michilimackinac.com/ |title = Mackinaw, Mackinac Straits, Mackinac Island |website = Michilimackinac |access-date = November 2, 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130925185840/https://www.michilimackinac.com/ |archive-date = September 25, 2013 |url-status = dead }}</ref>

As usage of the state's [[mineral]] and [[timber]] resources increased during the 19th century, the area became an important [[transport hub]]. In 1881 the three railroads that reached the Straits, the [[Michigan Central Railroad|Michigan Central]], [[Grand Rapids and Indiana Railroad|Grand Rapids & Indiana]], and the [[Detroit, Mackinac and Marquette Railroad|Detroit, Mackinac & Marquette]], jointly established the [[Mackinac Transportation Company]] to operate a [[Train ferry|railroad car ferry]] service across the straits and connect the two peninsulas.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.michigan.gov/mdot/0,4616,7-151-9620_11154_11188-26923--,00.html |title = I-75 / Straits of Mackinac |website = Michigan's Historic Bridges |publisher = Michigan Department of Transportation |access-date = November 2, 2013 }}</ref>

Improved [[highway]]s along the eastern shores of the [[Lower Peninsula]] brought increased automobile traffic to the Straits region starting in the 1910s. The state of Michigan initiated an automobile ferry service between Mackinaw City and St. Ignace in 1923; it eventually operated nine ferry boats that would carry as many as 9,000 vehicles per day. Traffic backups could stretch as long as {{convert|16|mi|km}}.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.asce.org/about-civil-engineering/history-and-heritage/historic-landmarks/mackinac-bridge |title = Mackinac Bridge |author = American Society of Civil Engineers |publisher = American Society of Civil Engineers |access-date = January 29, 2022 }}</ref>

===Plans for the bridge===
[[File:Traffic at opening of Mackinac Bridge, November 1, 1957.jpg|thumb|Bridge's opening on November 1, 1957]]
After the opening of the [[Brooklyn Bridge]] in 1883, local residents began to imagine that such a structure could span the straits. In 1884, a store owner in [[St. Ignace, Michigan|St. Ignace]] published a newspaper advertisement that included a reprint of an artist's conception of the Brooklyn Bridge with the caption "Proposed bridge across the Straits of Mackinac".<ref name="michigan1">{{cite web |url = https://www.michigan.gov/mdot/0,4616,7-151-9618_11016-25527--,00.html |title = History |publisher = Michigan Department of Transportation |access-date = November 2, 2013 }}</ref>

The idea of the bridge was discussed in the Michigan Legislature as early as the 1880s. At the time, the Straits of Mackinac area was becoming a popular tourist destination, especially following the creation of [[Mackinac National Park]] on Mackinac Island in 1875.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Widder |first = Keith |year = 1975 |title = Mackinac National Park 1875-1895 |journal = Reports in Mackinac History and Archaeology |number = 4 |publisher = Mackinac Island State Park Commission |url = https://npshistory.com/publications/mha-rpt-4.pdf |access-date = December 11, 2023 |archive-date = October 19, 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221019214524/http://npshistory.com/publications/mha-rpt-4.pdf |url-status = dead }}</ref>

At a July 1888 meeting of the board of directors of the [[Grand Hotel (Mackinac Island)|Grand Hotel]] on Mackinac Island, [[Cornelius Vanderbilt II]] proposed that a bridge be built across the straits, of a design similar to the one then under construction across the [[Firth of Forth]] in [[Scotland]]. This would advance commerce in the region and help lengthen the resort season of the hotel.<ref name="michigan1"/>

Decades went by with no formal action. In 1920, the Michigan state highway commissioner advocated construction of a floating tunnel across the Straits. At the invitation of the state legislature, C. E. Fowler of [[New York City]] put forth a plan for a long series of causeways and bridges across the straits from [[Cheboygan, Michigan|Cheboygan]], {{convert|17|mi|km}} southeast of Mackinaw City, to St. Ignace, using [[Bois Blanc Island (Michigan)|Bois Blanc]], [[Round Island (Michigan)|Round]], and Mackinac islands as intermediate steps.<ref>{{cite web |author = Mackinac Bridge Authority |date = n.d. |title = History of the Bridge, Mackinac Bridge |url = https://www.mackinacbridge.org/history/history-of-the-bridge/ |access-date = October 19, 2022 |publisher = Mackinac Bridge Authority |language = en }}</ref>

===Formal planning===
In 1923, the state legislature ordered the State Highway Department to establish ferry service across the strait. More and more people used ferries to cross the straits each year, and as they did, the movement to build a bridge increased. [[Chase Osborn]], a former governor, wrote:

{{blockquote|Michigan is unifying itself, and a magnificent new route through Michigan to Lake Superior and the Northwest United States is developing, via the Straits of Mackinac. It cannot continue to grow as it ought with clumsy and inadequate ferries for any portion of the year.<ref>{{harvp|Rubin|1958|p=13}}.</ref>}}

By 1928, the ferry service had become so popular and so expensive to operate that Governor [[Fred W. Green]] ordered the department to study the feasibility of building a bridge across the strait. The department deemed the idea feasible, estimating the cost at $30&nbsp;million (equivalent to ${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US-GDP|30000000|1928}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US-GDP}}{{Inflation-fn|US-GDP}}).

In 1934, the Michigan Legislature created the ''Mackinac Straits Bridge Authority'' to explore possible methods of constructing and funding the proposed bridge.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |author = Board of Engineers |date = January 10, 1950 |title = Proposed Mackinac Straits Bridge Preliminary Report |url = https://www.michigan.gov/-/media/Project/Websites/egle/Documents/Programs/OGMD/Catalog/12/Proposed-Prelim-Report.pdf |publisher = Mackinac Bridge Authority |access-date = June 20, 2024 }}</ref> The Legislature authorized the Authority to seek financing for the project. In the mid-1930s, during the Great Depression, when numerous infrastructure projects received federal aid, the Authority twice attempted to obtain federal funds for the project but was unsuccessful. The [[United States Army Corps of Engineers]] and President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] endorsed the project but Congress never appropriated funds. Between 1936 and 1940, the Authority selected a route for the bridge based on preliminary studies. Borings were made for a detailed [[geology|geological]] study of the route.<ref name=":0" />

The preliminary plans for the bridge featured a three-lane roadway, a railroad crossing on the underdeck of the span, and a center-anchorage double-suspension bridge configuration similar to the design of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge. Because this would have required sinking an anchorage pier in the deepest area of the Straits, the practicality of this design may have been questionable.{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}} A concrete causeway, approximately {{convert|4000|ft|m|0}}, extending from the northern shore, was constructed in shallow water from 1939 to 1941. However, a unique engineering challenge was created by the tremendous forces that operate against the base of the bridge, because the lakes freeze during the winter, causing large icebergs to place enormous stress on the bridge.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}

At that time, with funding for the project still uncertain, further work was put on hold because of the outbreak of [[World War II]]. The ''Mackinac Straits Bridge Authority'' was abolished by the state legislature in 1947, but the same body created a new [[Mackinac Bridge Authority]] three years later in 1950. In June 1950, engineers were retained for the project. By then, it was reported that cars queuing for the ferry at Mackinaw City did not reach St. Ignace until five hours later, and the typical capacity of 460 vehicles per hour could not match the estimated 1,600 for a bridge.<ref>{{harvp|Rubin|1958|p=23}}.</ref>

After a report by the engineers in January 1951,<ref>{{cite book |type = Report |url = https://www.michigan.gov/documents/deq/Proposed_Prelim_Report_opt_306071_7.pdf |title = Proposed Mackinac Straits Bridge Preliminary Report |access-date = April 15, 2013 |last = Ammann |first = Othmar |author-link = Othmar Ammann |date = January 10, 1951 }}</ref> the state legislature authorized the sale of $85&nbsp;million (equivalent to ${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US-GDP|85000000|1952}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US-GDP}}{{Inflation-fn|US-GDP}}) in bonds for bridge construction on April 30, 1952. However, a weak bond market in 1953 forced a delay of more than a year before the bonds could be issued.

===Engineering and construction===
[[File:Mackinac Bridge Tower.jpg|thumb|upright|left|View of the north tower of the bridge]]
[[David B. Steinman]] was appointed as the design engineer in January 1953 and by the end of 1953, estimates and contracts had been negotiated. A civil engineer at the firm, Abul Hasnat, did the preliminary plans for the bridge. Total cost estimate at that time was $95&nbsp;million (equivalent to ${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US-GDP|95000000|1953}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US-GDP}}{{Inflation-fn|US-GDP}}) with estimated completion by November 1, 1956.  Tolls collected were to pay for the bridge in 20 years.<ref>{{cite magazine |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8NsDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA132 |title = Mackinac Bridge Will Rival Golden Gate |magazine = [[Popular Mechanics]] |date = August 1953 |volume = 100 |issue = 2 |page = 132 |issn = 0032-4558 |access-date = February 21, 2012 }}</ref> Construction began on May 7, 1954. The bridge was built under two major contracts. The [[Merritt-Chapman & Scott|Merritt-Chapman and Scott Corporation]] of New York was awarded the contract for all major substructure work for $25.7 million (equivalent to ${{formatprice|{{inflation|US-GDP|25700000|1953}}}} in {{inflation-year|US-GDP}}{{inflation-fn|US-GDP}}), while the [[American Bridge Company|American Bridge Division]] of [[United States Steel Corporation]] was awarded a contract of more than $44&nbsp;million (equivalent to ${{formatprice|{{Inflation|US-GDP|44000000|1954}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US-GDP}}{{Inflation-fn|US-GDP}}) to build the [[steel]] superstructure.<ref>{{cite book |last = Hyde |first = Charles K. |year = 1993 |url = https://archive.org/details/historichighwayb0000hyde |url-access = registration |title = Historic Highway Bridges of Michigan |location = Detroit |publisher = [[Wayne State University Press]] |isbn = 978-0-8143-2448-6 |page = 165 }}</ref>

Construction, staged using the 1939–1941 causeway, took three and a half years (four summers, no winter construction) at a total cost of $100 million and the lives of five workers. Contrary to popular belief, none of them are entombed in the bridge.<ref>{{cite web |author = Mackinac Bridge Authority |date = n.d. |url = https://www.mackinacbridge.org/bridge-workers-61/ |title = In Memory of: Bridge Workers |publisher = Mackinac Bridge Authority |access-date = February 21, 2012 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120220102023/https://www.mackinacbridge.org/bridge-workers-61/ |archive-date = February 20, 2012 |url-status = dead }}</ref> It opened to traffic on schedule on November 1, 1957, and the ferry service ceased on the same day. The bridge was formally dedicated on June 25, 1958.

[[G. Mennen Williams]] was governor during the construction of the Mackinac Bridge. He began the tradition of the governor leading the [[Mackinac Bridge Walk]] across it every [[Labor Day]].<ref name="nga">{{cite web |url = https://www.nga.org/portal/site/nga/menuitem.29fab9fb4add37305ddcbeeb501010a0/?vgnextoid=9dca49bc0a733010VgnVCM1000001a01010aRCRD |title = Michigan Governor Gerhard Mennen Williams |publisher = [[National Governors Association]] |access-date = January 30, 2010 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100701152001/https://www.nga.org/portal/site/nga/menuitem.29fab9fb4add37305ddcbeeb501010a0/?vgnextoid=9dca49bc0a733010VgnVCM1000001a01010aRCRD |archive-date = July 1, 2010 }}</ref> Senator [[Prentiss M. Brown]] has been called the "father of the Mackinac Bridge",<ref name="mba-pmb">{{cite web |author = Mackinac Bridge Authority |date = n.d. |url = https://www.mackinacbridge.org/prentiss-m.-brown-41/ |title = Prentiss M. Brown, 'Father of the Mackinac Bridge' |publisher = Mackinac Bridge Authority |access-date = January 30, 2010 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091222184239/https://www.mackinacbridge.org/prentiss-m.-brown-41/ |archive-date = December 22, 2009 }}</ref> and was honored with a special memorial [[token coin|bridge token]] created by the Mackinac Bridge Authority.<ref name="mba-tokens">{{cite web |author = Mackinac Bridge Authority |url = https://www.mackinacbridge.org/token-order-form-21/ |title = Mackinac Bridge commemorative token gift packs |publisher = Mackinac Bridge Authority |year = 2009 |access-date = January 30, 2010 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091222184106/https://www.mackinacbridge.org/token-order-form-21/ |archive-date = December 22, 2009 |url-status = dead }}</ref>

The bridge officially achieved its 100&nbsp;millionth crossing exactly 40 years after its dedication, on June 25, 1998.<ref name="mbafacts"/> The 50th anniversary of the bridge's opening was celebrated on November 1, 2007, in a ceremony hosted by the Mackinac Bridge Authority at the viewing park adjacent to the St. Ignace causeway.<ref name="mbafacts"/> The bridge was designated as a [[National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark]] by the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]] in 2010.<ref>{{cite news |author = <!--Staff writer(s)/no by-line.--> |title = Mackinac Bridge Chosen as National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark |url = https://www.stignacenews.com/articles/mackinac-bridge-chosen-as-national-historic-civil-engineering-landmark/ |newspaper = [[The St. Ignace News]] |date = August 12, 2010 |access-date = February 3, 2021 }}</ref>

===History of the bridge's design===
[[File:Mackinac Bridge-2.jpg|thumb|upright|View of a bridge tower]]
{{unreferenced section|date=October 2020}}
The design of the Mackinac Bridge was directly influenced by the lessons from the [[Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940)|first Tacoma Narrows Bridge]], which failed in 1940 because of its instability in high winds. Three years after that disaster, Steinman had published a theoretical analysis of suspension-bridge stability problems, which recommended that future bridge designs include deep stiffening [[truss]]es to support the bridge deck and an open-grid roadway to reduce its wind resistance. Both of these features were incorporated into the design of the Mackinac Bridge. The stiffening truss is open to reduce wind resistance. The road deck is shaped as an airfoil to provide lift in a cross wind, and the center two lanes are open grid to allow vertical (upward) air flow, which fairly precisely cancels the lift, making the roadway stable in design in winds of up to {{convert|150|mph|km/h}}.