Editing Machu Picchu (section)

==History==
[[File:Machu Picchu.png|thumb|One of the first pictures of Machu Picchu, taken by [[Hiram Bingham III]] in 1912 after major clearing and before reconstruction work began]]

Machu Picchu was previously believed (by [[Richard L. Burger]], professor of [[anthropology]] at [[Yale University]]) to have been built in the 1450s.{{sfn|Burger|Salazar|2004|p=27}} However, a 2021 study led by Burger used [[radiocarbon dating]] (specifically, [[accelerator mass spectrometry|AMS]]) to reveal that Machu Picchu may have been occupied from around 1420 to 1530 AD.<ref>{{cite web | last=Cummings | first=Mike | title=Machu Picchu older than expected, study reveals | website=[[Yale News]] | date=2021-08-04 | url=https://news.yale.edu/2021/08/04/machu-picchu-older-expected-study-reveals | access-date=2024-08-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Machu Picchu in Peru is older than previously thought |website=[[CNN]] |date=4 Aug 2021|author=Jack Guy |url=https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/machu-picchu-peru-study-scli-intl-scn/index.html |access-date=August 12, 2024}}</ref> Construction appears to date from two great Inca rulers, [[Pachacuti|Pachacutec Inca Yupanqui]] (1438–1471) and [[Topa Inca Yupanqui|Túpac Inca Yupanqui]] (1472–1493).{{sfn|Bastante|Fernández|2020a|pp=269-288}}<ref name=Hiram/>{{rp|xxxvi}}

A consensus among archaeologists is that Pachacutec ordered the construction of the royal estate for his use as a retreat, most likely after a successful military campaign. Although Machu Picchu is considered to be a "royal" estate, it would not have been passed down in the line of [[order of succession|succession]]. Rather it was used for 80 years before being abandoned, seemingly because of the [[Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire|Spanish conquests]] in other parts of the [[Inca Empire]].{{sfn|Burger|Salazar|2004|p=27}} It is possible that most of its inhabitants died from [[smallpox]] introduced by travelers before the Spanish [[conquistador]]s even arrived in the area.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KQR6iXMT11EC|title=Plagues and Peoples|last=McNeill|first=William|author-link=William H. McNeill|date=2010|publisher=[[Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group]]|isbn=978-0-307-77366-1|language=en|page=216}}</ref>

===Ancient life===
====Daily life in Machu Picchu====
[[File:Machu Picchu, Perú, 2015-07-30, DD 47.JPG|thumb|View of the ancient houses]]
During its use as an estate, it is estimated that about 750 people lived there, with most serving as support staff (''[[Yanakuna|yanaconas]], yana)''{{sfn|Burger|Salazar|2004|p=24}}<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Turner|first=Bethany L.|date=2010|title=Variation in Dietary Histories Among the Immigrants of Machu Picchu: Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Evidence|journal=[[Chungara (journal)|Chungara, Revista de Antropología Chilena]]|volume=42|issue=2|pages=515–534|doi=10.4067/s0717-73562010000200012|doi-access=free}}</ref> who lived there permanently. Though the estate belonged to Pachacutec, religious specialists and temporary specialized workers (''mayocs'') lived there as well, most likely for the ruler's well-being and enjoyment. During winter, which was usually the harsher season, staffing was reduced to a few hundred servants and a few religious specialists focused on maintenance alone.{{sfn|Burger|Salazar|2004|p=86}}

Studies show that, according to their skeletal remains, most people who lived there were immigrants from diverse backgrounds. They lacked the chemical markers and [[Osteology|osteological]] markers they would have if they had been living there their entire lives. Instead, research into skeletal remains has found bone damage from various species of water [[Parasites of humans|parasites]] indigenous to different areas of Peru. There were also varying osteological stressors and varying chemical densities suggesting varying long-term diets characteristic of specific regions that were spaced apart.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Turner|first1=Bethany L.|last2=Armelagos|first2=George J.|date=1 September 2012|title=Diet, residential origin, and pathology at Machu Picchu, Peru|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|language=en|volume=149|issue=1 |pages=71–83|doi=10.1002/ajpa.22096|pmid=22639369|issn=1096-8644}}</ref> These diets are composed of varying levels of [[maize]], [[potato]]es, [[grain]]s, [[legume]]s, and [[fish]], but the last-known short-term diet for these people was overall composed of less fish and more corn. This suggests that several of the immigrants were from more coastal areas and moved to Machu Picchu, where corn was a larger portion of food intake.<ref name=":1" /> Most skeletal remains found at the site had lower levels of [[arthritis]] and [[bone fracture]]s than those found in most sites of the [[Inca Empire]]. Incan individuals who had arthritis and bone fractures were typically those who performed heavy physical labor (such as the [[Mit'a]]) or served in the [[Inca army|Inca military]].{{sfn|Burger|Salazar|2004|p=88}}

Animals are also suspected to have been brought to Machu Picchu, as there were several bones found that were not native to the area. Most animal bones found were from [[llama]]s and [[alpaca]]s. These animals naturally live at altitudes of {{convert|4000|m|-3|sp=us}} rather than the {{convert|2400|m|-2|sp=us}} elevation of Machu Picchu. Most likely, these animals were brought in from the [[Puna grassland|Puna]] region<ref>{{cite journal |title=Reviewing human-environment interactions in arid regions of southern South America during the past 3000 years |journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology |volume=281 |issue=3–4 |pages=283–295 |year=2009 |last1=Morales |first1=M. |last2=Barberena |first2=R. |last3=Belardi |first3=J.B. |last4=Borrero |first4=L. |last5=Cortegoso |first5=V. |last6=Durán |first6=V. |last7=Guerci |first7=A. |last8=Goñi |first8=R. |last9=Gil |first9=A. |last10=Neme |first10=G. |last11=Yacobaccio |first11=H. |last12=Zárate |first12=M. |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.09.019 |bibcode=2009PPP...281..283M}}</ref> for meat consumption and for their pelts. [[Guinea pig]]s were also found at the site in special tomb caves, suggesting that they were at least used for funerary rituals,{{sfn|Burger|Salazar|2004|p=94}} as it was common throughout the Inca Empire to use them for sacrifices and meat.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XGtFCQAAQBAJ&q=guinea&pg=PA38|title=Daily Life in the Inca Empire |last=Malpass|first=Michael A.|edition=2nd |year=2009|publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]]|isbn=978-0-313-35549-3|language=en|page=38}}</ref> Six dogs were also recovered from the site. Due to their placements among the human remains, it is believed that they served as companions of the dead.{{sfn|Burger|Salazar|2004|p=94}}

====Agricultural activity====
[[File:Andenes at Machu Picchu (cropped).jpg|thumb|{{Lang|es|[[Andén|Andenes (terraces)]]}} used for [[farming]] at Machu Picchu|upright=1.2]]
Much of the [[Incan agriculture|farming]] done at Machu Picchu was done on its hundreds of {{Lang|es|[[Andén|andenes]]}} (man-made terraces). These terraces were a work of considerable engineering, built to ensure good drainage and soil fertility while also protecting the mountain itself from erosion and landslides. However, the terraces were not perfect, as studies of the land show that there were landslides that happened during the construction of Machu Picchu. Still visible are places where the terraces were shifted by landslides and then stabilized by the Inca as they continued to build around the area.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=Jeff L.|date=January 2001|title=Rediscovering the lost city|journal=Civil Engineering; New York|volume=71|pages=32–39|id={{ProQuest|228471133}}}}</ref> The terraces also enabled irrigation, increasing crop yields, with maize likely being the main crop due to its ceremonial importance, alongside possible cultivation of potatoes.{{sfn|Reinhard|2020a|p=303}}

However, terrace farming area makes up only about {{cvt|12|acre|ha|disp=flip}} of land, and a study of the soil around the terraces showed that what was grown there was mostly corn and potatoes, which was not enough to support the 750+ people living at Machu Picchu. This explains why studies done on the food that the Inca ate at Machu Picchu suggest it was imported from the surrounding valleys and farther afield.<ref name=":3" />

It is estimated that the area around the site has received more than {{cvt|1800|mm}} of rain per year since AD 1450, which was more than that needed to support crop growth. Because of the ample rainfall at Machu Picchu, it was found that [[Irrigation in Peru|irrigation]] was not usually needed for the terraces. The terraces received so much rain that they were built by [[Incan engineers]] specifically to allow for drainage of excess water. Excavation and soil analyses done by Kenneth Wright<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Kenneth Robert Wright|first=Richard G.|last=Weingardt|date=19 April 2008|journal=Leadership and Management in Engineering|volume=8|issue=2|pages=87–92|doi=10.1061/(ASCE)1532-6748(2008)8:2(87)|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":2"/> in the 1990s showed that the terraces were built in layers, with a bottom layer of larger stones covered by loose gravel.<ref name=":2"/> On top of the gravel was a layer of mixed sand and gravel packed together, with rich topsoil covering it. Research showed that the topsoil was probably moved from the valley floor to the terraces because it was much better than the soil higher up the mountain.{{sfn|Burger|Salazar|2004|p=101}}

====Human sacrifice and mysticism====
Little information exists surrounding human sacrifices at Machu Picchu, though it is known that many sacrifices were never given a proper burial, and their skeletal remains succumbed to the elements.<ref name="Gaither">{{cite journal|last=Gaither|first=Catherine|author2=Jonathan Kent|author3=Victor Sanchez|author4=Teresa Tham|date=June 2008|title=Mortuary Practices and Human Sacrifice in the Middle Chao Valley of Peru: Their Interpretation in the Context of Andean Mortuary Patterning|journal=Latin American Antiquity|volume=19|issue=2|pages=107, 115, 119|doi=10.1017/S1045663500007744|s2cid=162727279}}</ref> However, there is evidence that retainers were sacrificed to accompany a deceased noble in the afterlife.<ref name=Gaither/>{{rp|107, 119}} Animal, liquid and dirt sacrifices to the gods were more common and were made at the Altar of the Condor. The tradition is upheld by members of the [[Pachamama#New Age worship|New Age Andean religion]].<ref name=Hill>{{cite journal|last=Hill|first=Michael|title=Myth, Globalization, and Mestizaje in New Age Andean Religion: The Intic Churincuna (Children of the Sun) of Urubamba, Peru|journal=Ethnohistory|date=2010|volume=57|issue=2|pages=263, 273–2m75|doi=10.1215/00141801-2009-063}}</ref>{{rp|263}}

===Encounters with Westerners===
[[File:Machu Picchu and the Urubamba Canyon.jpg|thumb|Panoramic view of  Machu Picchu and the Urubamba Canyon]]
====Spanish conquest====
In the late 16th century, Spaniards who had recently gained control of the area documented that indigenous individuals mentioned returning to "Huayna Picchu", the name that is believed to be originally given to the site by locals.<ref name=":0" /> The Spanish conquistador [[Baltasar de Ocampo]] had notes of a visit during the end of the 16th century to a mountain fortress called ''Pitcos'' with sumptuous and majestic buildings, erected with great skill and art, all the [[lintels]] of the doors, as well the principal as the ordinary ones, being of marble and elaborately carved.<ref>{{cite book |last1=De Ocampo |first1=Baltasar |translator-last=Markham |translator-first=Sir Clements |translator-link=Clements Markham |title=An Account of the Province of Vilcapampa and a Narrative of the Execution of the Inca Tupac Amaru (1610) |publisher=York University |publication-place=[[Cambridge, Ontario|Cambridge]] |page=11 |url=https://www.yorku.ca/inpar/ocampo_markham.pdf}}</ref>

Over the centuries, the surrounding jungle overgrew the site, and few outside the immediate area knew of its existence. The site may have been re-discovered and plundered in 1867 by a German businessman, {{ill|Augusto Berns|de}}.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/7439397.stm |title= Machu Picchu ruin 'found earlier' |work=BBC News |author=Dan Collyns |date=6 June 2008}}</ref> Some evidence indicates that the German engineer J. M. von Hassel arrived earlier. Maps show references to Machu Picchu as early as 1874.<ref>{{cite news |last=Romero |first=Simon |title=Debate Rages in Peru: Was a Lost City Ever Lost? |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/08/world/americas/08peru.html|date=7 December 2008}}</ref> A 1904 atlas designated the site as Huayna Picchu.<ref name=":0" />

====Search for the Neo-Inca capital====
{{Multiple image
| image1            = Agustín Lizárraga signature on Temple of Three Windows of Machu Picchu enhanced.jpg
| image2            = Agustín Lizárraga signature on Temple of Three Windows of Machu Picchu enhanced (cropped).jpg
| footer            = Inscription "A. Lizárraga 1902" by [[Agustín Lizárraga|Lizárraga]] on the central window of the Temple of the Three Windows
| position          = left
| total_width       = 350
}}

In 1911 American historian and explorer [[Hiram Bingham III|Hiram Bingham]] traveled the region looking for the lost capital of the Neo-Inca state (later established to be [[Vilcabamba, Peru|Vilcabamba]]), established by [[Manco Inca]] after the Spanish conquest, and was led to Machu Picchu by a villager, Melchor Arteaga. Bingham found the name of the Peruvian explorer [[Agustín Lizárraga]] and the date 1902 written in charcoal on one of the walls of the Temple of the Three Windows. Initially disappointed, he documented in his pocket field journal: "Agustín Lizárraga is discoverer of Machu Picchu and lives at San Miguel Bridge just before passing."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Heaney |first=Christopher |url=https://us.macmillan.com/books/9780230112049/cradleofgold |title=Cradle of gold: the story of Hiram Bingham, a real-life Indiana Jones and the search for Machu Picchu |date=2011 |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|MacMillan]] |isbn=978-0-230-11204-9 |access-date=8 August 2023|location= New York}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bingham (1875–1956) |first=Hiram |date=2004-01-01 |title=Inca Land: Explorations in the Highlands of Peru |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/10772/10772-h/10772-h.htm |access-date=2023-08-07 |publisher=[[Project Gutenberg]] |language=en-us}}</ref> However, while Bingham initially acknowledged Lizárraga as the discoverer in his early writings and speeches, including ''Inca Land'' (1922), he gradually downplayed Lizárraga's role until, in his final version of the story, ''Lost City of the Incas'' (1952), Bingham claimed to have found the site himself.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hall |first=Amy Cox |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VZk5DwAAQBAJ |title=Framing a Lost City: Science, Photography, and the Making of Machu Picchu |date=2017-11-22 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-1-4773-1368-8 |language=en}}</ref>

Though Bingham was not the first to visit the ruins, he was considered the scientific discoverer who brought Machu Picchu to international attention. Bingham organized another expedition in 1912 to undertake major clearing and excavation.<ref name="Hiram" />{{rp|xxx–xxxi}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wiener |first=Aaron |date=1 May 2008 |title=Hiram Bingham's Expedition and the Peruvian Response: A Connecticut Yanqui in the Land of the Incas |url=https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/mssa_collections/1 |journal=Kaplan Senior Essay Prize for Use of Library Special Collections |access-date=9 August 2023}}</ref>

====First American expedition====
[[File: Hiram Bingham III at his tent door near Machu Picchu in 1912.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Hiram Bingham III]] at his tent door near Machu Picchu in 1912]]
Bingham was a lecturer at [[Yale University]], although not a trained archaeologist. In 1909, returning from the Pan-American Scientific Congress in [[Santiago]], he travelled through Peru and was invited to explore the Inca ruins at [[Choquequirao|Choqquequirau]] in the [[Department of Apurímac|Apurímac Valley]]. He organized the 1911 Yale Peruvian Expedition in part to search for the Inca capital, which was thought to be the city of [[Vitcos]], reportedly located near the town of [[Torontoy (Peru)|Torontoy]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vitcos: The Last Inca Capital |url=https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/45647892.pdf |last=Bingham |first=Hiram |date=1912 |website=American Antiquarian Society. |page=174}}</ref> He consulted Carlos Romero, one of the chief historians in Lima who showed him helpful references and Father [[Antonio de la Calancha]]'s Chronicle of the Augustinians. In particular, Ramos thought Vitcos was "near a great white rock over a spring of fresh water." Back in Cusco again, Bingham asked planters about the places mentioned by Calancha, particularly along the Urubamba River. According to Bingham, "one old prospector said there were interesting ruins at Machu Picchu," though his statements "were given no importance by the leading citizens." Only later did Bingham learn that [[Charles Wiener]] had also heard of the ruins at [[Huayna Picchu]] and Machu Picchu, but was unable to reach them.<ref name="Hiram">{{cite book|last1=Bingham|first1=Hiram|title=Lost City of the Incas|date=1952|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson|isbn=978-1-84212-585-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/lostcityofincass00bing/page/112 112–135]|url=https://archive.org/details/lostcityofincass00bing/page/112}}</ref><ref name="torreon">{{cite journal |last1 = Dearborn |first1 = D.S.P.|last2 = White |first2 = R.E. |date = 1983 |title = The "Torreon" of Machu Picchu as an Observatory |journal = Journal for the History of Astronomy | series = | volume = 14 | issue = 5 | pages = S37–S49 | doi=10.1177/002182868301400502 | url = https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/002182868301400502 |bibcode=1983JHAS...14...37D}}</ref>

[[File: Melchor Arteaga crossing the Urubamba River on 24 July 1911.jpg|thumb|Melchor Arteaga crossing the Urubamba River on 24 July 1911]]

Armed with this information, Bingham's expedition went down the [[Urubamba River]]. En route, Bingham asked local people to show them Inca ruins, especially any place described as having a white rock over a spring.<ref name=Hiram/>{{rp|137}}<ref name="vit"/>

At Mandor Pampa, Bingham asked farmer and innkeeper Melchor Arteaga if he knew of any nearby ruins. Arteaga said he knew of excellent ruins on the top of Huayna Picchu.{{sfn|Bingham|2010}} The next day, 24 July, Arteaga led Bingham and Sergeant Carrasco across the river on a log bridge and up to the Machu Picchu site. At the top of the mountain, they came across a small hut occupied by a couple of [[Quechua people|Quechua]] people, Richard and Alvarez, who were farming some of the original Machu Picchu agricultural terraces that they had cleared four years earlier. Alvarez's 11-year-old son, Pablito, led Bingham along the ridge to the main ruins.{{sfn|Wright|Valencia Zegarra|2004|p=1}}

[[File:Partial view of Machu Picchu in 1911.jpg|thumb|Partial view of Machu Picchu on 24 July 1911, with much of the site covered by dense vegetation.]]
The ruins were mostly covered with vegetation except for the cleared agricultural terraces and clearings used by the farmers as vegetable gardens. Because of the vegetation, Bingham was not able to observe the full extent of the site. He took preliminary notes, measurements, and photographs, noting the fine quality of Inca stonework of several principal buildings. Bingham was unsure about the original purpose of the ruins, but concluded there was no indication that it matched the description of Vitcos.<ref name=Hiram/>{{rp|141, 186–187}}<ref name="vit">{{cite book | last=MacQuarrie | first=Kim | author-link= Kim MacQuarrie | title=The Last Days Of The Incas | publisher=Little, Brown Book Group | year=2012 | isbn=978-1-4055-2607-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k1w7KARSwgYC |page=255 |access-date=2024-08-21}}</ref>

The expedition continued down the Urubamba and up the Vilcabamba Rivers examining all the ruins they could find. Guided by locals, Bingham rediscovered and correctly identified the site of the old Inca capital, Vitcos (then called Rosaspata), and the nearby temple of [[Chuquipalta]]. He then crossed a pass and into the Pampaconas Valley where he found more ruins heavily buried in the jungle undergrowth at [[Espíritu Pampa]], which he named "Trombone Pampa".<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Geographical Society of Philadelphia]] |title=Bulletin of the Geographical Society of Philadelphia|year=1912|volume=10|chapter=Yale Expedition to Peru|pages=134–136|chapter-url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=DHBIAAAAYAAJ|page=134}}}}</ref> As was the case with Machu Picchu, the site was so heavily overgrown that Bingham could only note a few of the buildings. In 1964, [[Gene Savoy]] further explored the ruins at Espiritu Pampa and revealed the full extent of the site, identifying it as [[Vilcabamba, Peru|Vilcabamba Viejo]], where the Incas fled after the Spanish drove them from Vitcos.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rodriguez-Camilloni |first1=Humberto |title=Reviewed Work: Machu Picchu: Unveiling the Mystery of the Incas by Richard L Burger, Lucy C. Salazar |journal=Journal of Latin American Geography |volume=8 |issue=2 |year=2009 |pages=230–232 |jstor=25765271 |doi=10.1353/lag.0.0051 |s2cid=144758591 }}</ref><ref name=Hiram/>{{rp|xxxv}}<ref>{{Cite book |title=The White Rock: An Exploration of the Inca Heartland |last=Thomson |first=Hugh |author-link=Hugh Thomson (writer) |publisher=[[Hachette UK]] |year=2010 |isbn=9780297866169 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0ZJVDy63SmAC}}</ref>

[[File:Map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1912.jpg|thumb|Route map of the Peruvian Expedition of 1912]]
Bingham returned to Machu Picchu in 1912 under the sponsorship of Yale University and [[National Geographic]] and with the full support of Peruvian [[Augusto B. Leguía|President Augusto Leguia]]. The expedition undertook a four-month clearing of the site with local labor, which was expedited with the support of the Prefect of Cusco. Excavation started in 1912 with further excavation undertaken in 1914 and 1915. Bingham focused on Machu Picchu because of its fine Inca stonework and well-preserved nature, which had lain undisturbed since the site was abandoned. None of Bingham's several hypotheses explaining the site have since held up. During his studies, he carried various artifacts back to Yale. One prominent artifact was a set of 15th-century, ceremonial Incan knives made from [[bismuth bronze]]; they are the earliest known artifact containing this alloy.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gordon | first1 = Robert B. | last2 = Rutledge | first2 = John W. | title = Bismuth Bronze from Machu Picchu, Peru | journal = Science | volume = 223 | year = 1984 | issue = 4636 | pages = 585–586 | publisher = American Association for the Advancement of Science |doi = 10.1126/science.223.4636.585| pmid = 17749940 | bibcode = 1984Sci...223..585G }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Fellman |first=Bruce |date=December 2002 |title=Rediscovering Machu Picchu |url=http://archives.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/02_12/machupicchu.html |magazine=Yale Alumni Magazine |access-date=7 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506171545/http://archives.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/02_12/machupicchu.html |archive-date=6 May 2016  }}</ref>

[[File:An Architectural Triumph Machu Picchu.jpg|thumb|The Sacred Plaza, the Main Temple, and the Temple of the Three Windows after the 1912 clearing work. Above these structures is the Sacred Hill, which features the [[Intihuatana, Urubamba|Intihuatana]].]]

Although local institutions initially welcomed the exploration, they soon accused Bingham of legal and cultural malpractice.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite journal |last1=Salvatore |first1=Ricardo Donato |title=Local versus Imperial Knowledge: Reflections on Hiram Bingham and the Yale Peruvian Expedition |journal=Nepantla: Views from South |volume=4 |issue=1 |year=2003 |pages=67–80 |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/40208 }}</ref> Rumors arose that the team was stealing artifacts and smuggling them out of Peru through [[Bolivia]]. In fact, Bingham removed many artifacts, but openly and legally; they were deposited in the Yale University Museum. Bingham was abiding by the 1852 Civil Code of Peru; the code stated that "archaeological finds generally belonged to the discoverer, except when they had been discovered on private land" (Batievsky 100).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yvXTcGC5CwQC&q=Peru%E2%80%99s+Civil+Code+of+1852&pg=PA100|title=Art and Cultural Heritage: Law, Policy and Practice|last=Hoffman|first=Barbara T.|date=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85764-2|page=100|language=en}}</ref> Local press perpetuated the accusations, claiming that the excavation harmed the site and deprived local archaeologists of knowledge about their own history.<ref name=autogenerated1/> Landowners began to demand rent from the excavators.<ref name=autogenerated1/> By the time Bingham and his team left Machu Picchu, locals had formed coalitions to defend their ownership of Machu Picchu and its cultural remains, while Bingham claimed the artifacts ought to be studied by experts in American institutions.<ref name=autogenerated1/>

===Current state===
====Preservation====
{{further|Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu}}
In 1981, Peru declared an area of {{convert|325.92|km2|2|abbr=out|sp=us}} surrounding Machu Picchu a "historic sanctuary".<ref>{{cite web | title = Santuario Histórico de Machupicchu | url = https://www.gob.pe/institucion/sernanp/informes-publicaciones/1793255-santuario-historico-de-machupicchu | website = Peruvian State Digital Platform | publisher = [[SERNANP]] | access-date = 2024-08-12 }}</ref> In addition to the ruins, the sanctuary includes a large portion of the adjoining region, rich with the [[flora]] and [[fauna]] of the [[Peruvian Yungas]] and [[Central Andean wet puna]] [[ecoregions]].<ref name="ecoregions">{{cite journal |doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[0933:TEOTWA]2.0.CO;2 |volume=51 |pages=933–938 |title=Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth |last1=Olson |first1=David M. |last2=Dinerstein |first2=Eric |last3=Wikramanayake |first3=Eric D. |last4=Burgess |first4=Neil D. |last5=Powell |first5=George V. N. |last6=Underwood |first6=Emma C. |last7=d'Amico |first7=Jennifer A. |last8=Itoua |first8=Illanga |last9=Strand |first9=Holly E.| display-authors = 8 |journal=BioScience |issue=11|year=2001 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Beyond its historical significance, Machu Picchu houses a diverse range of species. Among them are the [[Culpeo|Andean fox]], [[Cougar|puma]], vizcacha, [[spectacled bear]], and white-tailed deer. The sanctuary is also habitat for more than 420 bird species, notably the [[cock-of-the-rock]] and the [[Andean condor]]. The surrounding environment features a variety of tree species such as alder, white cedar, husk, and laurel.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.peru.travel/en/attractions/machu-picchu |title=Machu Picchu: World natural and cultural heritage site |author=Peru Travel: Official Tourism Website of Peru|date=2023-08-08 |access-date=2023-08-08}}</ref>

In 1983, UNESCO designated Machu Picchu a [[World Heritage Site]], describing it as "a masterpiece of art, urbanism, architecture and engineering" and "a unique testimony" of the Inca Civilization.<ref name="unesco"/>

====The modern town of Machu Picchu====
[[File:Aguas Calientes, Cuzco, Perú, 2015-07-30, DD 68.JPG|alt=Main Square of Aguas Calientes|left|thumb|Main Square of [[Aguas Calientes, Peru|Aguas Calientes]]]]
Along the Urubamba river, below the ruins, surrounding the train line "street", is the town of Machu Picchu, also known as [[Aguas Calientes, Peru|Aguas Calientes]] (hot springs), with a post office, a train station, hotels, and other services for the many tourists. The station, called Puente Ruinas (the bridge to the ruins) is the end of the line for the ''tren de turismo'', the tourist train, which arrives every morning from Cusco and returns every afternoon. There is also a luxury hotel on the mountain, near the ruins.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Daniel |last=Eisenberg |author-link=:es:Daniel Eisenberg |title=Machu Picchu and Cusco |journal=Journal of Hispanic Philology |volume=13 |year=1989 |pages=97–101 |url=http://users.ipfw.edu/jehle/deisenbe/JHPcolumn/MACHUPIC.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313050543/http://users.ipfw.edu/jehle/deisenbe/JHPcolumn/MACHUPIC.htm |archive-date=2016-03-13}}</ref>

Machu Picchu is [[twin town|officially twinned]] with [[Haworth]], [[West Yorkshire]] in the United Kingdom,<ref>{{cite web | last=Wainwright | first=Martin | title=Brontë village to twin with Machu Picchu | website=The Guardian | date=2005-10-18 | url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2005/oct/18/britishidentity.martinwainwright | access-date=2024-08-21}}</ref> as well as [[Fukushima (city)|Fukushima]]<ref name=JapTimes>{{cite web|access-date=26 September 2022|date=28 October 2015|language=en|publisher=The Japan Times|title=Machu Picchu inks friendship pact with Fukushima village of Otama|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/10/28/national/machu-picchu-inks-friendship-pact-fukushima-village-otama/| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129231439/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/10/28/national/machu-picchu-inks-friendship-pact-fukushima-village-otama/|archive-date=29 Nov 2023|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Ōtama]], Japan,<ref name=Jap>{{cite web|access-date=26 September 2022|date=26 October 2015|publisher=Embajada del Japón en el Perú|title=Suscripción de Convenio de Hermanamiento entre las localidades de Otama y Machu Picchu Pueblo|url=https://www.pe.emb-japan.go.jp/esp/SuscripcionMachuPicchu.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129231344/https://www.pe.emb-japan.go.jp/esp/SuscripcionMachuPicchu.html |archive-date=2023-11-29|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Petra]], Jordan,<ref name="Machu Picchu-Petra">{{cite web | title=Gobiernos de Perú y Jordania firman acuerdo para promover intercambio cultural | website=[[Ministry of Culture (Peru)|Ministry of Culture]] | date=2018-03-11 | url=https://www.gob.pe/institucion/cultura/noticias/5142-gobiernos-de-peru-y-jordania-firman-acuerdo-para-promover-intercambio-cultural | language=es | ref={{sfnref | Plataforma del Estado Peruano | 2018}} | access-date=2024-08-20}}</ref> [[Medley, Florida|Medley]], United States,<ref name="Miraflores-Medley">{{cite web|access-date=15 December 2022|date=15 May 2019|title=Oficio N° 001-2019-2020/LLR/DCR|url=https://www2.congreso.gob.pe/Sicr/MesaDirectiva/sipfr2011.nsf/308151CB8F663085052584540079BA2C/$FILE/LeonRomero_MAY2019.15.pdf|work=[[Congress of the Republic of Peru]]}}</ref> and [[Tinúm Municipality|Tinum]], Mexico.<ref>{{cite web | title=Maravillas del mundo moderno Machu Picchu y Chichén Itzá se hermanan | website=[[Andina (news agency)|Andina]] | date=2019-12-13 | url=https://andina.pe/ingles/noticia-maravillas-del-mundo-moderno-machu-picchu-y-chichen-itza-se-hermanan-778303.aspx | language=es | access-date=2024-08-20}}</ref>

====Tourist activity====
Machu Picchu is both a cultural and natural [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]. Since Hiram Bingham's expedition, growing numbers of tourists have visited the site each year, with numbers exceeding 1.5 million in 2019.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://datosturismo.mincetur.gob.pe/appdatosTurismo/frmReporte.aspx?id=224 |title=Cusco: Llegada de visitantes al Santuario Histórico de Machu Picchu |publisher=[[MINCETUR]] |date=December 2019 |access-date=20 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240820234200/https://datosturismo.mincetur.gob.pe/appdatosTurismo/frmReporte.aspx?id=224 |archive-date=20 August 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> As Peru's most visited tourist attraction, and a major revenue generator, it is continually exposed to economic and commercial forces. In the late 1990s, the Peruvian government granted concessions to allow the construction of a [[Cable car (railway)|cable car]] and a luxury hotel, including a tourist complex with boutiques and restaurants and a bridge to the site.<ref name="BBC1">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6292327.stm|title=Bridge stirs the waters in Machu Picchu|date=1 February 2007|access-date=7 June 2016 |work=BBC News Online}}</ref> These plans faced widespread protests, with critics arguing that the government had failed to conduct a proper environmental impact survey, as requested by the [[National Institute of Natural Resources]], which warned of potential harm to the ecosystem.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Medrano |first=Adolfo |date=1998 |title=Peru: Machu Picchu's cable car saga |journal=UNESCO Sources |issue=106 |pages=12–13 |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000114228.locale=en |language=English}}</ref> In 2018, plans were restarted to again construct a cable car to encourage Peruvians to visit Machu Picchu and boost domestic tourism.<ref>{{cite news | last=Sachs | first=Andrea | title=Peru devises new rules to tackle the mounting crowds on Machu Picchu | newspaper=Washington Post | date=2018-02-02 | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/travel/peru-devises-new-rules-to-tackle-the-mounting-crowds-on-machu-picchu/2018/02/02/7ac380d6-061b-11e8-8777-2a059f168dd2_story.html | access-date=2024-08-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Peru: Cable car system might increase tourist arrivals in Machu Picchu | website=Andina | date=2018-09-10 | url=https://andina.pe/agencia/noticia-peru-cable-car-system-might-increase-tourist-arrivals-in-machu-picchu-724703.aspx | language=es | access-date=2024-08-21}}</ref> A [[no-fly zone]] exists above the area.<ref name="ban">{{cite news|last=Collyns |first=Dan |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5326042.stm |title=Peru bans flights over Inca ruins |work=[[BBC News]] |date=8 September 2006 |access-date=24 August 2010}}</ref> [[UNESCO]] considered including Machu Picchu on its [[List of World Heritage in Danger]] in 2017, but ultimately decided against it.<ref>{{cite news | title = Machu Picchu airport: UNESCO demands answers from Peru government | url = https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2019/aug/09/machu-picchu-airport-unesco-demands-answers-from-peru-government | work = [[The Guardian]] | date = 9 August 2019 | access-date = 2024-08-12 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = UNESCO not to include Peru's Machu Picchu in World Heritage in Danger list | url = https://andina.pe/ingles/noticia-unesco-not-to-include-perus-machu-picchu-in-world-heritage-in-danger-list-673883.aspx | website = [[Andina (news agency)|Andina]] | date = 30 June 2021 | access-date = 2024-08-12 }}</ref>

[[File:Machu Picchu Gate.jpg|thumb|Tourists at the main entrance to the Machu Picchu citadel]]

Efforts to manage the impact of tourism have included various measures over the years. In the 1980s, a rock from Machu Picchu's central plaza was moved to create a helicopter landing zone, a practice which was later stopped. In 2006, the company Helicusco sought approval for tourist flights over the site, but the license was soon rescinded.<ref name="ban"/> In January 2010, severe flooding caused by [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation|El Niño]] trapped over 4,000 people and disrupted access to Machu Picchu, leading to its temporary closure.<ref>{{cite news | title = 1400 tourists rescued amid Machu Picchu floods | url = https://www.france24.com/en/20100129-1400-tourists-rescued-amid-machu-picchu-floods | publisher = [[France 24]] | date = 29 January 2010 | access-date = 2024-08-12 }}</ref> The site reopened on April 1, 2010.<ref>{{cite web | title=Machu Picchu reopens after 2-month closure | website=NBC News | date=2010-04-01 | url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna36138915 | access-date=2024-08-21}}</ref> To further address tourism's impact, stricter entrance regulations were introduced in July 2011, limiting the number of daily visitors to 2,500 per day to the citadel and 400 to Huayna Picchu.<ref>{{cite web | title = Machu Picchu restricted to 2,500 visitors per day | url = https://andina.pe/agencia/noticia-machu-picchu-restricted-to-2500-visitors-per-day-369998.aspx | website = [[Andina (news agency)|Andina]] | date = 8 April 2011 | access-date = 2024-08-12 }}</ref> In 2018, a third entrance phase was added to better manage tourism and reduce site degradation.<ref>{{cite web | title = Peru: Everything you need to know about entrance times for Machu Picchu in 2019 | url = https://andina.pe/ingles/noticia-peru-everything-you-need-to-know-about-entrance-times-for-machu-picchu-in-2019-764846.aspx | website = [[Andina (news agency)|Andina]] | date = 7 June 2019 | access-date = 2024-08-12 }}</ref> In 2024, the daily visitor limit was officially increased to 4,500, with up to 5,600 permitted during peak season.<ref>{{cite news | title = Machu Picchu: Peru to dramatically increase number of tourists allowed to visit each day | url = https://news.sky.com/story/machu-picchu-peru-to-dramatically-increase-number-of-tourists-allowed-to-visit-attraction-each-day-13021637 | publisher = Sky News | date = 2024-06-27 | access-date = 2024-08-29 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title = Peru: Greater flow of tourists to Machu Picchu expected due to increased capacity | url = https://andina.pe/Ingles/noticia-peru-greater-flow-of-tourists-to-machu-picchu-expected-due-to-increased-capacity-985456.aspx | website = Andina | date = 2024-07-03 | access-date = 2024-08-29 }}</ref>

In May 2012, UNESCO urged additional protection measures for the site's buffer zone, especially due to the rapid growth in the nearby town of [[Aguas Calientes, Peru|Aguas Calientes]].<ref>{{cite news | title=UN fears spread of Machu Picchu town | work=[[SBS News]] | agency=Agence France-Presse | date=2012-05-28 | url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/un-fears-spread-of-machu-picchu-town/l07jwsh36 | access-date=2024-08-22}}</ref> Tourist deaths at Machu Picchu from [[altitude sickness]], floods, and accidents have led to criticism of UNESCO for allowing visits despite the site's high safety risks.<ref>{{cite web | title=Retired merchant navy captain died on trip of a lifetime |last=Dixon |first=Hayley |website=The Telegraph | date=2013-08-21 | url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/southamerica/peru/10257308/Retired-merchant-navy-captain-died-on-trip-of-a-lifetime.html | access-date=2024-08-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | last=Miller | first=Michael E. | title=German tourist falls to his death while posing for photo atop Machu Picchu | newspaper=Washington Post | date=2016-07-01 | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/07/01/german-tourist-falls-to-his-death-while-trying-to-take-photo-atop-machu-picchu/ | access-date=2024-08-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Bates|first=Stephen|title=Stranded tourists await rescue from Machu Picchu|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jan/26/machu-picchu-flood-tourists|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=14 February 2014|date=26 January 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Keough | first1 = Elizabeth Betsy | title = Heritage in Peril: A Critique of UNESCO's World Heritage Program | journal = Washington University Global Studies Law Review | volume = 10 | pages = 593 | year = 2011 | url = https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/law_globalstudies/vol10/iss3/5 }}</ref> The trend of [[Nude recreation|nude tourism]] in 2014 also led to increased surveillance by Peru's [[Ministry of Culture (Peru)|Ministry of Culture]] to end the practice.<ref>{{cite web|last=Liu|first=Evie|title=Peru to Tourists: 'Stop getting naked at Machu Picchu!'|url= http://www.cnn.com/2014/03/20/travel/naked-tourists-machu-picchu-peru/index.html?sr=tw032014picchunaked1030astory|publisher=[[CNN]]|access-date=20 March 2014|date=20 March 2014}}</ref>

In recognition of efforts to manage and protect the site, Fernando Astete, who served as Chief of the [[National Archaeological Park of Machu Picchu]] from 1994 to 2019, was honored with the "Personalidad Meritoria de la Cultura" award by the [[Ministry of Culture of Peru]] in January 2020. This award acknowledged his extensive contributions to the preservation, management, and study of Machu Picchu.<ref>{{cite web | title=Personajes distinguidos con la Personalidad Meritoria de la Cultura | website=[[El Peruano]] | date=2020-01-16 | url=https://elperuano.pe/noticia/88688-personajes-distinguidos-con-la-personalidad-meritoria-de-la-cultura | language=es | access-date=2024-08-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://cdn.www.gob.pe/uploads/document/file/475314/RM_025-2020-MC_ACCESIBLE.pdf |title=Resolución Ministerial N° 025-2020-MC |date=2020-01-14 |access-date=2024-08-22 |website=[[Ministry of Culture (Peru)|Ministry of Culture]] |publication-place=Lima}}</ref>

During the [[2022–2023 Peruvian protests]], routes to Machu Picchu were blocked, trapping thousands of tourists and leading to a government airlift of the stranded visitors.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news |date=2023-01-21 |title=Peru protests: Machu Picchu closed indefinitely and tourists stranded |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-64360531 |access-date=2023-02-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-12-20 |title=Tourists stuck in Machu Picchu due to Peru protests airlifted out |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-64037002 |access-date=2023-02-03}}</ref> Due to these disruptions, the Ministry of Culture closed the site indefinitely on January 22, 2023, and it was reopened on February 15, 2023.<ref name=":4" /><ref name="dw.com">{{Cite news |date=22 January 2023 |title=Peru: Government shuts Machu Picchu as protests continue |work=DW |url=https://www.dw.com/en/peru-government-shuts-machu-picchu-as-protests-continue/a-64477333 |access-date=22 January 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title = Machu Picchu reopens to tourists after closure over civil unrest | url = https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/machu-picchu-reopens-tourists-after-closure-over-civil-unrest-2023-02-15/ | publisher = [[Reuters]] | date = 15 February 2023 | access-date = 2024-08-12 }}</ref>