Editing Macedonia (ancient kingdom) (section)

==History==
{{main|History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)}}

===Early history and legend===
{{main|Achaemenid Macedonia|Argead dynasty}}
{{further|List of ancient Macedonians#Kings}}
[[File:Vergina2.jpg|thumb|The entrance to one of the royal tombs at [[Vergina]], a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]]]
The [[Classical Greece|Classical]] [[Greek historiography|Greek historians]] [[Herodotus]] and [[Thucydides]] reported the [[Origin myth|legend]] that the [[List of Macedonian kings|Macedonian kings]] of the [[Argead dynasty]] were descendants of [[Temenus]], king of [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]], and could therefore claim the mythical [[Heracles]] as one of their [[ancestor]]s as well as [[Family tree of the Greek gods|a direct lineage]] from [[Zeus]], chief god of the [[Greek mythology|Greek pantheon]].<ref name="king 376 sprawski 127 errington 2 3">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=376}}; {{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|p=127}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=2–3}}.</ref> Contradictory legends state that either [[Perdiccas I of Macedon]] or [[Caranus of Macedon]] were the founders of the Argead dynasty, with either five or eight kings before Amyntas{{nbsp}}I.<ref>{{harvnb|King|2010|p=376}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=3, 251}}.</ref> The assertion that the Argeads descended from Temenus was accepted by the ''[[Hellanodikai]]'' authorities of the [[Ancient Olympic Games]], permitting [[Alexander I of Macedon]] ({{reign|498|454|era=BC}}) to enter the competitions owing to his perceived Greek heritage.<ref>{{harvnb|Badian|1982|p=34}}; {{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|p=142}}.</ref> Little is known about the kingdom before the reign of Alexander{{nbsp}}I's father [[Amyntas I of Macedon]] ({{reign|547|498|era=BC}}) during the [[Archaic Greece|Archaic period]].<ref name="king 2010 376"/>

The [[History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|kingdom of Macedonia]] was situated along the [[Haliacmon]] and [[Vardar|Axius]] rivers in [[Lower Macedonia]], north of [[Mount Olympus]]. Historian [[Robert Malcolm Errington]] suggests that one of the earliest Argead kings established [[Aegae (Macedonia)|Aigai]] (modern [[Vergina]]) as their capital in the mid-7th century{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=2}}.</ref> Before the 4th century{{nbsp}}BC, the kingdom covered a region corresponding roughly to the [[Western Macedonia|western]] and [[Central Macedonia|central]] parts of the [[Macedonia (Greece)|region of Macedonia]] in modern [[Greece]].<ref>{{harvnb|Thomas|2010|pp=67–68, 74–78}}.</ref> It gradually expanded into the region of [[Upper Macedonia]], inhabited by the Greek [[Lynkestis|Lyncestae]] and [[Elimiotis|Elimiotae]] tribes, and into regions of [[Emathia (Macedonia)|Emathia]], [[Eordaia]], [[Bottiaea]], [[Mygdonia]], [[Crestonia]], and [[Almopia]], which were inhabited by various peoples such as [[Thracians]] and [[Phrygians]].<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Lewis|Boardman|1994|pp=723–724}}, see also {{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|pp=105–108}} for the Macedonian expulsion of original inhabitants such as the [[Phrygians]].</ref> Macedonia's non-Greek neighbors included Thracians, inhabiting territories to the northeast, [[Illyrians]] to the northwest, and [[Paeonians]] to the north, while the lands of [[Thessaly]] to the south and [[Epirus]] to the west were inhabited by Greeks with similar cultures to that of the Macedonians.<ref>{{harvnb|Anson|2010|pp=5–6}}.</ref>

[[File:Oktadrachm of Alexander I 498 – 454 BCE.jpg|thumb|left|A silver ''[[drachm|octadrachm]]'' of [[Alexander I of Macedon]] ({{reign|498|454|era=BC}}), [[Mint (facility)|minted]] {{circa|465–460 BC}}, showing an [[equestrianism|equestrian]] figure wearing a ''[[chlamys]]'' (short cloak) and ''[[petasos]]'' (head cap) while holding two spears and leading a horse]]
{{multiple image
| align        = right
| footer_align = center
| image1       = Xerxes I tomb Ionian with petasos or kausia soldier circa 480 BCE cleaned up.jpg
| width1       = 106
| image2       = Xerxes tomb Ionian with petasos.jpg
| width2       = 150
| footer       = The "Ionians with shield-hats" ([[Old Persian cuneiform]]: [[Wikt:𐎹𐎢𐎴𐎠 𐏐 𐎫𐎣𐎲𐎼𐎠|𐎹𐎢𐎴𐎠𐏐𐎫𐎣𐎲𐎼𐎠]], ''Yaunā takabarā'')<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livius.org/sources/content/achaemenid-royal-inscriptions/dna/?|title=DNa – Livius|website=www.livius.org}}</ref> depicted on the tomb of [[Xerxes I]] at [[Naqsh-e Rustam]], were probably Macedonian soldiers in the service of the [[Achaemenid army]], wearing the [[petasos]] or [[kausia]], {{Circa|480 BC}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|pp=343–344}}</ref>
}}
A year after [[Darius I of Persia]] ({{reign|522|486|era=BC}}) launched [[European Scythian campaign of Darius I|an invasion]] into Europe against the [[Scythians]], [[Paeonians]], [[Thrace|Thracians]], and several Greek city-states of the [[Balkans]], the Persian general [[Megabazus]] used diplomacy to convince Amyntas{{nbsp}}I to submit as a [[Vassal state|vassal]] of the [[Achaemenid Empire]], ushering in the period of [[Achaemenid Macedonia]].<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|pp=342–343}}; {{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|pp=131, 134}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=8–9}}. <br />Errington is skeptical that at this point [[Amyntas I of Macedon]] offered any submission as a vassal at all, at most a token one. He also mentions how the Macedonian king pursued his own course of action, such as inviting the exiled Athenian [[tyrant]] [[Hippias (tyrant)|Hippias]] to take refuge at [[Anthemous]] in 506{{nbsp}}BC.</ref> Achaemenid Persian [[hegemony]] over Macedonia was briefly interrupted by the [[Ionian Revolt]] (499–493{{nbsp}}BC), yet the Persian general [[Mardonius (general)|Mardonius]] brought it back under Achaemenid [[suzerainty]].<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|p=344}}; {{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|pp=135–137}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=9–10}}.</ref>

Although Macedonia enjoyed a large degree of [[autonomy]] and was never made a [[satrap]]y (i.e. province) of the Achaemenid Empire, it was expected to provide troops for the [[Achaemenid army]].<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|pp=343–344}}; {{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|p=137}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=10}}.</ref> Alexander{{nbsp}}I provided Macedonian military support to [[Xerxes I]] ({{reign|486|465|era=BC}}) during the [[Second Persian invasion of Greece]] in 480–479 BC, and Macedonian soldiers fought on the side of the Persians at the 479{{nbsp}}BC [[Battle of Platea]].<ref>{{harvnb|King|2010|p=376}}; {{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|pp=344–345}}; {{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|pp=138–139}}.</ref> Following the [[Battle of Salamis|Greek victory at Salamis]] in 480{{nbsp}}BC, Alexander{{nbsp}}I was employed as an Achaemenid diplomat to propose a peace treaty and alliance with [[Classical Athens|Athens]], an offer that was rejected.<ref>{{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|pp=139–140}}.</ref> Soon afterwards, the Achaemenid forces were [[Wars of the Delian League|forced to withdraw from mainland Europe]], marking the end of Persian control over Macedonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|p=345}}; {{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|pp=139–141}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=11–12}} for further details.</ref>

===Involvement in the Classical Greek world===
{{further|Delian League|Spartan hegemony|Theban hegemony}}
[[File:Map Peloponnesian War 431 BC-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|Macedon (orange) during the [[Peloponnesian War]] around 431{{nbsp}}BC, with [[Classical Athens|Athens]] and the [[Delian League]] (yellow), [[Sparta]] and [[Peloponnesian League]] (red), independent states (blue), and the Persian [[Achaemenid Empire]] (purple)]]
Although initially a Persian vassal, Alexander{{nbsp}}I of Macedon fostered friendly diplomatic relations with his former Greek enemies, the Athenian and [[Sparta]]n-led coalition of Greek city-states.<ref>{{harvnb|Sprawski|2010|pp=141–143}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=9, 11–12}}.</ref> His successor [[Perdiccas II of Macedon|Perdiccas{{nbsp}}II]] ({{reign|454|413|era=BC}}) led the Macedonians to war in four separate conflicts against Athens, leader of the [[Delian League]], while incursions by the Thracian ruler [[Sitalces]] of the [[Odrysian kingdom]] threatened Macedonia's [[territorial integrity]] in the northeast.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=145–147}}.</ref> The Athenian statesman [[Pericles]] promoted colonization of the [[Strymon River]] near the Kingdom of Macedonia, where the colonial city of [[Amphipolis]] was founded in 437/436{{nbsp}}BC so that it could provide Athens with a steady supply of silver and gold as well as [[timber]] and [[Pitch (resin)|pitch]] to support the [[Athenian navy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=146–147}}; {{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=171}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|p=72}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=13–14}} for further details.</ref> Initially Perdiccas II did not take any action and might have even welcomed the Athenians, as the Thracians were foes to both of them.<ref name="roisman 2010 146 147"/> This changed due to an Athenian alliance with a brother and cousin of Perdiccas{{nbsp}}II who had rebelled against him.<ref name="roisman 2010 146 147">{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=146–147}}.</ref> Thus, two separate wars were fought against Athens between 433 and 431{{nbsp}}BC.<ref name="roisman 2010 146 147"/> The Macedonian king retaliated by promoting the rebellion of Athens' allies in [[Chalcidice]] and subsequently won over the strategic city of [[Potidaea]].<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=146–147}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=18}} for further details.</ref> After capturing the Macedonian cities [[Therma]] and [[Veria|Beroea]], Athens besieged Potidaea but failed to overcome it; Therma was returned to Macedonia and much of Chalcidice to Athens in a [[peace treaty]] brokered by Sitalces, who provided Athens with military aid in exchange for acquiring new Thracian allies.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=147–148}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=19–20}}.</ref>

Perdiccas{{nbsp}}II sided [[Peloponnesian League|with Sparta]] in the [[Peloponnesian War]] (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta, and in 429 BC Athens retaliated by persuading Sitalces to invade Macedonia, but he was forced to retreat owing to a shortage of provisions in winter.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=149–150}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=20}}.</ref> In 424 BC, [[Arrhabaeus]]<!-- This is intentionally linked to a disambiguation page, at least until an article is made about this individual. -->, a local ruler of [[Lynkestis]] in Upper Macedonia, rebelled against his [[suzerain|overlord]] Perdiccas, and the Spartans agreed to help in putting down the revolt.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=150–152}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=21–22}}.</ref> At the [[Battle of Lyncestis]] the Macedonians panicked and fled before the fighting began, enraging the Spartan general [[Brasidas]], whose soldiers looted the unattended Macedonian [[baggage train]].<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=152}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=22}}.</ref> Perdiccas then changed sides and supported Athens, and he was able to put down Arrhabaeus's revolt.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=152–153}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=22–23}}.</ref>

[[File:Didrachm of Archelaos I King of Macedonia.jpg|thumb|left|A Macedonian [[didrachm]] minted during the reign of [[Archelaus I of Macedon]] ({{reign|413|399|era=BC}})]]
Brasidas died in 422 BC, the year Athens and Sparta struck an accord, the [[Peace of Nicias]], that freed Macedonia from its obligations as an Athenian ally.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=153}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=22–23}}.</ref> Following the 418{{nbsp}}BC [[Battle of Mantinea (418 BC)|Battle of Mantinea]], the victorious Spartans formed an alliance with [[History of Argos|Argos]], a military pact Perdiccas{{nbsp}}II was keen to join given the threat of Spartan allies remaining in Chalcidice.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=153–154}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=23}} for further details.</ref> When Argos suddenly switched sides as a pro-Athenian [[democracy]], the Athenian navy was able to form a [[blockade]] against Macedonian [[seaport]]s and invade Chalcidice in 417{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=154}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=23}} for further details.</ref> Perdiccas{{nbsp}}II sued for peace in 414{{nbsp}}BC, forming an alliance with Athens that was continued by his son and successor [[Archelaus I of Macedon|Archelaus{{nbsp}}I]] ({{reign|413|399|era=BC}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=154}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=23–24}}.</ref> Athens then provided naval support to Archelaus{{nbsp}}I in the 410{{nbsp}}BC Macedonian siege of [[Pydna]], in exchange for timber and naval equipment.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=154–155}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=24}}.</ref>

Although Archelaus I was faced with some internal revolts and had to fend off an invasion of Illyrians led by [[Sirras]] of Lynkestis, he was able to project Macedonian power into Thessaly where he sent military aid to his allies.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=155–156}}.</ref> Although he retained Aigai as a ceremonial and religious center, Archelaus{{nbsp}}I moved the [[capital city|capital]] of the kingdom north to [[Pella]], which was then positioned by a lake with a river connecting it to the [[Aegean Sea]].<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=156}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=26}}.</ref> He improved Macedonia's [[currency]] by minting [[coin]]s with a [[Silver coin|higher silver content]] as well as issuing separate [[Coinage metals|copper coinage]].<ref name="Roisman 2010 156 157">{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=156–157}}.</ref> His royal court attracted the presence of well-known intellectuals such as the Athenian [[playwright]] [[Euripides]].<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=156–157}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=26}}.</ref> When Archelaus{{nbsp}}I was assassinated (perhaps following a [[Homosexuality in ancient Greece|homosexual]] love affair with [[royal page]]s at his court), the kingdom was plunged into chaos, in an era lasting from 399 to 393{{nbsp}}BC that included the reign of four different monarchs: [[Orestes of Macedon|Orestes]], son of Archelaus{{nbsp}}I; [[Aeropus II of Macedon|Aeropus{{nbsp}}II]], uncle, [[regent]], and murderer of Orestes; [[Pausanias of Macedon|Pausanias]], son of Aeropus{{nbsp}}II; and [[Amyntas II of Macedon|Amyntas{{nbsp}}II]], who was married to the youngest daughter of Archelaus{{nbsp}}I.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=157–158}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=28–29}}.</ref> Very little is known about this turbulent period; it came to an end when [[Amyntas III of Macedon|Amyntas{{nbsp}}III]] ({{reign|393|370|era=BC}}), son of Arrhidaeus and grandson of Amyntas{{nbsp}}I, killed Pausanias and claimed the Macedonian throne.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=158}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=28–29}}.</ref>

[[File:Coin of Amyntas III-161113.jpg|thumb|A silver ''[[stater]]'' of [[Amyntas III of Macedon]] ({{reign|393|370|era=BC}})]]
Amyntas III was forced to flee his kingdom in either 393 or 383{{nbsp}}BC (based on conflicting accounts), owing to a massive invasion by the [[Illyrians]] led by [[Bardylis]].<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=158–159}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=30}} for further details; the Greek historian [[Diodorus Siculus]] provided a seemingly conflicting account about Illyrian invasions occurring in 393{{nbsp}}BC and 383{{nbsp}}BC, which may have been representative of a single invasion led by the Illyrian king [[Bardylis]].</ref> The [[pretender]] to the throne [[Argaeus II of Macedon|Argaeus]] ruled in his absence, yet Amyntas{{nbsp}}III eventually returned to his kingdom with the aid of Thessalian allies.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=159}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=30}} for further details.</ref> Amyntas{{nbsp}}III was also nearly overthrown by the forces of the Chalcidian city of [[Olynthos]], but with the aid of [[Teleutias]], brother of the Spartan king [[Agesilaus II]], the Macedonians forced Olynthos to surrender and dissolve their [[Chalcidian League]] in 379{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=159–160}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=32–33}}.</ref>

[[Alexander II of Macedon|Alexander II]] ({{reign|370|368|era=BC}}), son of [[Eurydice I of Macedon|Eurydice{{nbsp}}I]] and Amyntas{{nbsp}}III, succeeded his father and immediately invaded Thessaly to wage war against the ''[[Tagus (title)|tagus]]'' (supreme Thessalian military leader) [[Alexander of Pherae]], capturing the city of [[Larissa]].<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=161}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=34–35}}.</ref> The Thessalians, desiring to remove both Alexander{{nbsp}}II and Alexander of Pherae as their [[overlord]]s, appealed to [[Pelopidas]] of [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] for aid; he succeeded in recapturing Larissa and, in the peace agreement arranged with Macedonia, received aristocratic [[hostage]]s including Alexander{{nbsp}}II's brother and future king [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip{{nbsp}}II]] ({{reign|359|336|era=BC}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=161–162}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=35–36}}.</ref> When Alexander was assassinated by his brother-in-law [[Ptolemy of Aloros]], the latter acted as an overbearing regent for [[Perdiccas III of Macedon|Perdiccas{{nbsp}}III]] ({{reign|368|359|era=BC}}), younger brother of Alexander{{nbsp}}II, who eventually had Ptolemy executed when reaching the [[age of majority]] in 365{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=162–163}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=36}}.</ref> The remainder of Perdiccas III's reign was marked by political stability and financial recovery.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=162–163}}.</ref> However, an Athenian invasion led by [[Timotheus (general)|Timotheus]], son of [[Conon]], managed to capture [[Methoni, Pieria|Methone]] and Pydna, and an Illyrian invasion led by Bardylis succeeded in killing Perdiccas{{nbsp}}III and 4,000 Macedonian troops in battle.<ref>{{harvnb|Roisman|2010|pp=163–164}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=37}}.</ref>

===Rise of Macedon===
{{Main|Expansion of Macedonia under Philip II}}
{{further|Argead dynasty|Amyntas IV of Macedon|League of Corinth}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Filip II Macedonia.jpg
| width1 = 185
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = Philip-ii-of-macedon.jpg
| width2 = 200
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer = Left, a bust of [[Philip II of Macedon]] ({{reign|359|336|era=BC}}) from the [[Hellenistic period]], located at [[Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek]]. Right, another bust of Philip&nbsp;II, a 1st-century AD [[Hellenistic art#Later Roman copies|Roman copy]] of a [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic Greek]] original, now in the [[Vatican Museums]].
}}
[[File:Expansion of Macedon (English).svg|thumb|upright=1.2|Map of the Kingdom of Macedon at the death of [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip{{nbsp}}II]] in 336{{nbsp}}BC (light blue), with the original territory that existed in 431{{nbsp}}BC (red outline), and [[dependent state]]s (yellow)]]

Philip II was twenty-four years old when he acceded to the throne in 359{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=166–167}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=467–472}}.</ref> Through the use of deft diplomacy, he was able to convince the Thracians under [[Berisades]] to cease their support of [[Pausanias (pretender)|Pausanias]], a pretender to the throne, and the Athenians to halt their support of [[Argaeus II of Macedon|another pretender]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=167–168}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=467–472}}.</ref> He achieved these by bribing the Thracians and their [[Paeonia (kingdom)|Paeonian]] allies and establishing a treaty with Athens that relinquished his claims to Amphipolis.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=167–168}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=467–472}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=38}}.</ref> He was also able to make peace with the Illyrians who [[Battle of Erigon Valley|had threatened his borders]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=167}}.</ref>

Philip II spent his initial years radically transforming the [[Ancient Macedonian army|Macedonian army]]. A reform of its organization, equipment, and training, including the introduction of the [[Macedonian phalanx]] armed with [[Pike (weapon)|long pikes]] (i.e. the ''[[sarissa]]''), proved immediately successful when tested against his Illyrian and Paeonian enemies.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=168}}.</ref> Confusing accounts in ancient sources have led modern scholars to debate how much Philip{{nbsp}}II's royal predecessors may have contributed to these reforms and the extent to which his ideas were influenced by his [[Adolescence|adolescent]] years of captivity in Thebes as a political hostage during the [[Theban hegemony]], especially after meeting with the general [[Epaminondas]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=168–169}}.</ref>

The Macedonians, like the other Greeks, traditionally practiced [[monogamy]], but Philip{{nbsp}}II practiced [[polygamy]] and married seven wives with [[Cleopatra Eurydice|perhaps only one]] that did not involve the loyalty of his aristocratic subjects or new allies.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=169–170, 179}}. <br />Müller is skeptical about the claims of [[Plutarch]] and [[Athenaeus]] that Philip{{nbsp}}II of Macedon married [[Cleopatra Eurydice of Macedon]], a younger woman, purely out of love or due to his own [[midlife crisis]]. Cleopatra was the daughter of the general [[Attalus (general)|Attalus]], who along with his father-in-law [[Parmenion]] were given command posts in [[Asia Minor]] (modern [[Turkey]]) soon after this wedding. Müller also suspects that this marriage was one of political convenience meant to ensure the loyalty of an influential Macedonian noble house.</ref> His first marriages were to [[Phila of Elimeia]] of the Upper Macedonian aristocracy as well as the Illyrian princess [[Audata]] to ensure a marriage alliance.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=169}}.</ref> To establish an alliance with Larissa in Thessaly, he married the Thessalian noblewoman [[Philinna]] in 358{{nbsp}}BC, who bore him a son who would later rule as [[Philip III Arrhidaeus]] ({{reign|323|317|era=BC}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=170}}; {{harvnb|Buckler|1989|p=62}}.</ref> In 357{{nbsp}}BC, he married [[Olympias]] to secure an alliance with [[Arybbas of Epirus|Arybbas]], the [[King of Epirus]] and the [[Molossians]]. This marriage would bear a son who would later rule as Alexander{{nbsp}}III (better known as [[Alexander the Great]]) and claim descent from the legendary [[Achilles]] by way of his [[Aeacidae|dynastic heritage from Epirus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=170–171}}; {{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=187}}.</ref> It is unclear whether or not the Achaemenid Persian kings influenced Philip{{nbsp}}II's practice of polygamy, although his predecessor Amyntas{{nbsp}}III had three sons with a possible second wife Gygaea: Archelaus, Arrhidaeus, and [[Menelaus (son of Amyntas III)|Menelaus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=167, 169}}; {{harvnb|Roisman|2010|p=161}}.</ref> Philip{{nbsp}}II had Archelaus put to death in 359{{nbsp}}BC, while Philip{{nbsp}}II's other two half brothers fled to Olynthos, serving as a ''[[casus belli]]'' for the [[Olynthian War]] (349–348{{nbsp}}BC) against the Chalcidian League.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=169, 173–174}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|p=84}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=38–39}}.</ref>

While Athens was preoccupied with the [[Social War (357–355 BC)]], Philip{{nbsp}}II retook Amphipolis from them in 357{{nbsp}}BC and the following year recaptured Pydna and Potidaea, the latter of which he handed over to the Chalcidian League as promised in a treaty.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=171}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=470–472}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=74–75}}.</ref> In 356{{nbsp}}BC, he took [[Crenides (Macedonia)|Crenides]], refounding it as [[Philippi]], while his general [[Parmenion]] defeated the Illyrian king [[Grabos II]] of the [[Grabaei]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=172}}; {{harvnb|Hornblower|2002|p=272}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|p=42}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=470–472}}.</ref> During the 355–354{{nbsp}}BC siege of Methone, Philip{{nbsp}}II lost his right eye to an arrow wound, but managed to capture the city and treated the inhabitants cordially, unlike the Potidaeans, who had been enslaved.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=171–172}}; {{harvnb|Buckler|1989|pp=63, 176–181}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=185–187}}. <br />Cawkwell contrarily provides the date of this siege as 354–353 BC.</ref>

Philip II then involved Macedonia in the [[Third Sacred War]] (356–346{{nbsp}}BC). It began when [[Phocis (ancient region)|Phocis]] captured and plundered the temple of [[Apollo]] at [[Delphi]] instead of submitting unpaid fines, causing the [[Amphictyonic League]] to declare war on Phocis and a [[civil war]] among the members of the [[Thessalian League]] aligned with either Phocis or Thebes.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=171–172}}; {{harvnb|Buckler|1989|pp=8, 20–22, 26–29}}.</ref> Philip{{nbsp}}II's initial campaign against [[Pherae]] in Thessaly in 353{{nbsp}}BC at the behest of Larissa ended in two disastrous defeats by the Phocian general [[Onomarchus]].<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=172–173}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=60, 185}}; {{harvnb|Hornblower|2002|p=272}}; {{harvnb|Buckler|1989|pp=63–64, 176–181}}. <br />Conversely, Buckler provides the date of this initial campaign as 354{{nbsp}}BC, while affirming that the second Thessalian campaign ending in the [[Battle of Crocus Field]] occurred in 353{{nbsp}}BC.</ref> Philip{{nbsp}}II in turn defeated Onomarchus in 352{{nbsp}}BC at the [[Battle of Crocus Field]], which led to Philip{{nbsp}}II's election as leader (''[[archon]]'') of the Thessalian League, provided him a seat on the Amphictyonic Council, and allowed for a marriage alliance with Pherae by wedding [[Nicesipolis]], niece of the tyrant [[Jason of Pherae]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=173}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=62, 66–68}}; {{harvnb|Buckler|1989|pp=74–75, 78–80}}; {{harvnb|Worthington|2008|pp=61–63}}.</ref>

Philip II had some early involvement with the Achaemenid Empire, especially by supporting [[satraps]] and mercenaries who rebelled against the central authority of the Achaemenid king. The satrap of [[Hellespontine Phrygia]] [[Artabazos II]], who was in rebellion against [[Artaxerxes III]], was able to take refuge as an exile at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC. He was accompanied in exile by his family and by his mercenary general [[Memnon of Rhodes]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Howe |first1=Timothy |last2=Brice |first2=Lee L. |title=Brill's Companion to Insurgency and Terrorism in the Ancient Mediterranean |date=2015 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-28473-9 |page=170 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=248DCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA170}}</ref><ref name="EDC">{{cite book |last1=Carney |first1=Elizabeth Donnelly |title=Women and Monarchy in Macedonia |date=2000 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=978-0-8061-3212-9 |page=101 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbI2hZBy_EkC&pg=PA101}}</ref> [[Barsine]], daughter of Artabazos, and future wife of Alexander the Great, grew up at the Macedonian court.<ref name="EDC"/>

After campaigning against the Thracian ruler [[Cersobleptes]], in 349{{nbsp}}BC, Philip{{nbsp}}II began his war against the Chalcidian League, which had been reestablished in 375{{nbsp}}BC following a temporary disbandment.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=173}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|p=44}}; {{harvnb|Schwahn|1931|loc=col. 1193–1194}}.</ref> Despite an Athenian intervention by [[Charidemus]],<ref>{{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|p=86}}.</ref> Olynthos was captured by Philip{{nbsp}}II in 348{{nbsp}}BC, and its inhabitants were [[Slavery in ancient Greece|sold into slavery]], including some [[Athenian citizenship|Athenian citizens]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=173–174}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=85–86}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=474–475}}.</ref> The Athenians, especially in a series of speeches by [[Demosthenes]] known as the ''[[Olynthiacs]]'', were unsuccessful in persuading their allies to counterattack and in 346{{nbsp}}BC concluded a treaty with Macedonia [[Peace of Philocrates|known as the Peace]] of [[Philocrates]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=173–174}}; {{harvnb|Worthington|2008|pp=75–78}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=96–98}}.</ref> The treaty stipulated that Athens would relinquish claims to Macedonian coastal territories, the Chalcidice, and Amphipolis in return for the release of the enslaved Athenians as well as guarantees that Philip{{nbsp}}II would not attack Athenian settlements in the [[Thracian Chersonese]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=174}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=98–101}}.</ref> Meanwhile, Phocis and [[Thermopylae]] were captured by Macedonian forces, the [[Pythia|Delphic temple]] robbers were executed, and Philip{{nbsp}}II was awarded the two Phocian seats on the Amphictyonic Council and the position of [[master of ceremonies]] over the [[Pythian Games]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=174–175}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=95, 104, 107–108}}; {{harvnb|Hornblower|2002|pp=275–277}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|pp=478–479}}.</ref> Athens initially opposed his membership on the council and refused to attend the games in protest, but they eventually accepted these conditions, perhaps after some persuasion by Demosthenes in his oration ''[[On the Peace]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=175}}.</ref>
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| footer = Left, a ''Niketerion'' (victory medallion) bearing the effigy of king [[Philip II of Macedon]], 3rd century{{nbsp}}AD, probably minted during the reign of [[Roman Emperor]] [[Alexander Severus]]. Right, the ruins of the [[Philippeion]] at [[Olympia, Greece]], which was built by [[Philip II of Macedon]] to celebrate his victory at the [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)|Battle of Chaeronea]] in 338{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=227}}.</ref>
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Over the next few years, Philip II reformed local governments in Thessaly, campaigned against the Illyrian ruler [[Pleuratus I]], deposed Arybbas in [[Epirus (ancient state)|Epirus]] in favor of his brother-in-law [[Alexander I of Epirus|Alexander{{nbsp}}I]] (through Philip{{nbsp}}II's marriage to Olympias), and defeated Cersebleptes in Thrace. This allowed him to extend Macedonian control over the [[Hellespont]] in anticipation of an invasion into [[Classical Anatolia|Achaemenid Anatolia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=175–176}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=114–117}}; {{harvnb|Hornblower|2002|p=277}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|1996|p=482}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=44}}.</ref> In 342{{nbsp}}BC, Philip{{nbsp}}II conquered [[History of Plovdiv|a Thracian city]] in what is now [[Bulgaria]] and renamed it [[Philippopolis (Thracia)|Philippopolis]] (modern [[Plovdiv]]).<ref>{{harvnb|Mollov|Georgiev|2015|p=76}}.</ref> War broke out with Athens in 340{{nbsp}}BC while Philip{{nbsp}}II was engaged in two ultimately unsuccessful sieges of [[Perinthus]] and [[Byzantion]], followed by a successful campaign against the Scythians along the [[Danube]] and Macedonia's involvement in the [[Fourth Sacred War]] against [[Amphissa (city)|Amphissa]] in 339{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=176}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=136–142}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=82–83}}.</ref> Thebes ejected a Macedonian garrison from [[Nicaea, Locris|Nicaea (near Thermopylae)]], leading Thebes to join Athens, [[Megara]], Corinth, [[Achaea]], and [[Euboea]] in a final confrontation against Macedonia at the [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)|Battle of Chaeronea]] in 338{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=176–177}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=143–148}}.</ref> After the Macedonian victory at Chaeronea, Philip{{nbsp}}II installed an [[oligarchy]] in Thebes, yet was lenient toward Athens, wishing to utilize their navy in a planned invasion of the Achaemenid Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=177}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=167–168}}.</ref> He was then chiefly responsible for the formation of the [[League of Corinth]] that included the major Greek city-states except Sparta. Despite the Kingdom of Macedonia's official exclusion from the league, in 337{{nbsp}}BC, Philip{{nbsp}}II was elected as the leader (''[[hegemon]]'') of its council (''[[synedrion]]'') and the [[commander-in-chief]] (''[[strategos]] [[autokrator]]'') of a forthcoming campaign to invade the Achaemenid Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=177–179}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|pp=167–171}}; see also {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|p=16}} for further details.</ref> Philip's plan to punish the Persians for the suffering of the Greeks and to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor<ref>{{cite book|last1=Davis Hanson|first1=Victor|title=Makers of Ancient Strategy: From the Persian Wars to the Fall of Rome|url=https://archive.org/details/makersancientstr00hans|url-access=limited|date=2010|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-13790-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/makersancientstr00hans/page/n131 119]|quote=Afterwards he [Alexander] revived his father's League of Corinth, and with it his plan for a pan-Hellenic invasion of Asia to punish the Persians for the suffering of the Greeks, especially the Athenians, in the Greco-Persian Wars and to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor.}}</ref> as well as perhaps the panhellenic fear of another Persian invasion of Greece, contributed to his decision to invade the Achaemenid Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|pp=348, 351}}</ref> The Persians offered aid to Perinthus and Byzantion in 341–340{{nbsp}}BC, highlighting Macedonia's strategic need to secure Thrace and the Aegean Sea against increasing Achaemenid encroachment, as the Persian king [[Artaxerxes III]] further consolidated his control over satrapies in [[Geography of Anatolia|western Anatolia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|pp=347–349}}</ref> The latter region, yielding far more wealth and valuable resources than the Balkans, was also coveted by the Macedonian king for its sheer economic potential.<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|p=351}}</ref>

When Philip II married [[Cleopatra Eurydice of Macedon|Cleopatra Eurydice]], niece of general [[Attalus (general)|Attalus]], talk of providing new potential heirs at the wedding feast infuriated Philip{{nbsp}}II's son Alexander, a veteran of the Battle of Chaeronea, and his mother Olympias.<ref name="muller 179–180 cawkwell 170"/> They fled together to Epirus before Alexander was recalled to Pella by Philip{{nbsp}}II.<ref name="muller 179–180 cawkwell 170">{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=179–180}}; {{harvnb|Cawkwell|1978|p=170}}.</ref> When Philip{{nbsp}}II arranged a marriage between his son Arrhidaeus and [[Ada of Caria]], daughter of [[Pixodarus]], the Persian satrap of [[Caria]], Alexander intervened and proposed to marry Ada instead. Philip{{nbsp}}II then cancelled the wedding altogether and exiled Alexander's advisors [[Ptolemy I|Ptolemy]], [[Nearchus]], and [[Harpalus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=180–181}}; see also {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|p=14}} for further details.</ref> To reconcile with Olympias, Philip{{nbsp}}II had their daughter [[Cleopatra of Macedon|Cleopatra]] marry Olympias' brother (and Cleopatra's uncle) Alexander{{nbsp}}I of Epirus, but Philip{{nbsp}}II was assassinated by his bodyguard, [[Pausanias of Orestis]], during their wedding feast and succeeded by Alexander in 336{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Müller|2010|pp=181–182}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=44}}; {{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=186}}; see {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=3–5}} for details of the arrests and judicial trials of other suspects in the conspiracy to assassinate [[Philip II of Macedon]].</ref>

===Empire<!--'Macedonian Empire' redirects here-->===
{{further|Wars of Alexander the Great|Wars of the Diadochi|Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia}}
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| footer = Left, Bust of [[Alexander the Great]] by the Athenian sculptor [[Leochares]], 330{{nbsp}}BC, [[Acropolis Museum]], Athens. Right, Bust of Alexander the Great, a [[Roman sculpture|Roman copy]] of the [[Roman Empire|Imperial Era]] (1st or 2nd century{{nbsp}}AD) after an original [[bronze sculpture]] made by the [[Ancient Greek sculpture|Greek sculptor]] [[Lysippos]], [[Louvre]], Paris.
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[[File:MacedonEmpire.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Alexander's empire and his route]]

Modern scholars have argued over the possible role of [[Alexander III of Macedon|Alexander{{nbsp}}III "the Great"]] and his mother Olympias in the assassination of Philip{{nbsp}}II, noting the latter's choice to exclude Alexander from his planned invasion of Asia, choosing instead for him to act as regent of Greece and deputy ''hegemon'' of the League of Corinth, and the potential bearing of another male heir between Philip{{nbsp}}II and his new wife, Cleopatra Eurydice.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=189–190}}; {{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=183}}. <br />Without implicating [[Alexander III of Macedon]] as a potential suspect in the plot to assassinate [[Philip II of Macedon]], [[N. G. L. Hammond]] and [[F. W. Walbank]] discuss possible Macedonian as well as foreign suspects, such as [[Demosthenes]] and [[Darius III]]: {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=8–12}}.</ref> Alexander{{nbsp}}III ({{reign|336|323|era=BC}}) was immediately proclaimed king by [[Popular assembly|an assembly]] of the army and leading aristocrats, chief among them being [[Antipater]] and Parmenion.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=190}}; {{harvnb|Müller|2010|p=183}}; {{harvnb|Renault|2001|pp=61–62}}; {{harvnb|Fox|1980|p=72}}; see also {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=3–5}} for further details.</ref> By the end of his reign and military career in 323{{nbsp}}BC, Alexander would rule over an empire consisting of [[mainland Greece]], [[Asia Minor]], the [[Levant]], [[ancient Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Persia]], and much of [[Central Asia|Central]] and [[South Asia]] (i.e. modern [[Pakistan]]).<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=186}}.</ref> Among his first acts was the burial of his father at Aigai.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=190}}.</ref> The members of the League of Corinth revolted at the news of Philip{{nbsp}}II's death, but were soon quelled by military force alongside persuasive diplomacy, electing Alexander as ''hegemon'' of the league to carry out the planned invasion of Achaemenid Persia.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=190–191}}; see also {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=15–16}} for further details.</ref>

In 335 BC, Alexander [[Alexander's Balkan campaign|fought against the Thracian tribe]] of the [[Triballi]] at [[Haemus Mons]] and along the [[Danube]], forcing their surrender on [[Peuce Island]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=191}}; {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=34–38}}.</ref> Shortly thereafter, the Illyrian chieftain [[Cleitus (son of Bardylis)|Cleitus]], son of [[Bardylis]], threatened to attack Macedonia with the aid of [[Glaucias of Taulantii|Glaucias]], king of the [[Taulantii]], but Alexander took the initiative and [[Siege of Pelium|besieged the Illyrians]] at [[Pelion (Illyria)|Pelion]] (in modern [[Albania]]).<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=191}}; {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=40–47}}.</ref> When Thebes had once again revolted from the League of Corinth and was besieging the Macedonian garrison in the [[Cadmea]], Alexander left the Illyrian front and marched to Thebes, which he [[Battle of Thebes|placed under siege]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=191}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=91}} and {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|p=47}} for further details.</ref> After breaching the walls, Alexander's forces killed 6,000 Thebans, took 30,000 inhabitants as [[prisoners of war]], and burned the city to the ground as a warning that convinced all other Greek states except Sparta not to challenge Alexander again.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=191–192}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=91–92}} for further details.</ref>

Throughout his military career, Alexander won every battle that he personally commanded.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=192–193}}.</ref> His first victory against the Persians in Asia Minor at the [[Battle of the Granicus]] in 334{{nbsp}}BC used a small cavalry contingent as a distraction to allow his infantry to cross the river followed by a [[cavalry charge]] from his [[companion cavalry]].<ref name="gilley worthington 2010 193">{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=193}}.</ref> Alexander led the cavalry charge at the [[Battle of Issus]] in 333{{nbsp}}BC, forcing the Persian king [[Darius III]] and his army to flee.<ref name="gilley worthington 2010 193"/> Darius{{nbsp}}III, despite having superior numbers, was again forced to flee the [[Battle of Gaugamela]] in 331{{nbsp}}BC.<ref name="gilley worthington 2010 193"/> The Persian king was later captured and executed by his own satrap of [[Bactria]] and kinsman, [[Bessus]], in 330{{nbsp}}BC. The Macedonian king subsequently hunted down and executed Bessus in what is now [[Afghanistan]], securing the region of [[Sogdia]] in the process.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=193–194}}; {{harvnb|Holt|2012|pp=27–41}}.</ref> At the 326{{nbsp}}BC [[Battle of the Hydaspes]] (modern-day [[Punjab]]), when the [[war elephant]]s of [[King Porus]] of the [[Pauravas]] threatened Alexander's troops, he had them form open ranks to surround the elephants and dislodge their handlers by using their ''sarissa'' pikes.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=193–194}}.</ref> When his Macedonian troops threatened [[mutiny]] in 324{{nbsp}}BC at [[Opis]], [[Babylonia]] (near modern [[Baghdad]], [[Iraq]]), Alexander offered Macedonian military titles and greater responsibilities to Persian officers and units instead, forcing his troops to seek forgiveness at a staged banquet of reconciliation between Persians and Macedonians.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=194}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=113}}.</ref>

[[File:Stag hunt mosaic, Pella.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Stag Hunt Mosaic]], c.{{nbsp}}300{{nbsp}}BC, from [[Pella]]; the figure on the right is possibly [[Alexander the Great]] due to the date of the [[mosaic]] along with the depicted upsweep of his centrally-parted hair (''anastole''); the figure on the left wielding a double-edged axe (associated with [[Hephaistos]]) is perhaps [[Hephaestion]], one of Alexander's loyal companions.]]
Alexander perhaps undercut his own rule by demonstrating signs of [[wiktionary:megalomania|megalomania]].<ref name="gilley worthington 2010 195"/> While utilizing effective propaganda such as the cutting of the [[Gordian Knot]], he also attempted to portray himself as a [[Sacred king|living god]] and son of Zeus following his visit to the [[oracle]] at [[Siwah]] in the [[Libyan Desert]] (in modern-day Egypt) in 331{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=194–195}}.</ref> His attempt in 327{{nbsp}}BC to have his men prostrate before him in [[Bactra]] in an act of ''[[proskynesis]]'' borrowed from the Persian kings was rejected as religious blasphemy by his Macedonian and Greek subjects after his court historian [[Callisthenes]] refused to perform this ritual.<ref name="gilley worthington 2010 195">{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=195}}.</ref> When Alexander had Parmenion murdered at [[Ecbatana]] (near modern [[Hamadan]], [[Iran]]) in 330{{nbsp}}BC, this was "symptomatic of the growing gulf between the king's interests and those of his country and people", according to Errington.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=105–106}}.</ref> His murder of [[Cleitus the Black]] in 328{{nbsp}}BC is described as "vengeful and reckless" by Dawn L. Gilley and Ian Worthington.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=198}}.</ref> Continuing the polygamous habits of his father, Alexander encouraged his men to marry native women in Asia, leading by example when he wed [[Roxana]], a Sogdian princess of Bactria.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|1989|pp=67–68}}.</ref> He then married [[Stateira II]], eldest daughter of Darius{{nbsp}}III, and [[Parysatis II]], youngest daughter of [[Artaxerxes III]], at the [[Susa weddings]] in 324{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=196}}.</ref>

Meanwhile, in Greece, the [[Spartan king]] [[Agis III]] attempted to lead a rebellion of the Greeks against Macedonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=199}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=93}}.</ref> He was defeated in 331{{nbsp}}BC at the [[Battle of Megalopolis]] by Antipater, who was serving as regent of Macedonia and deputy ''hegemon'' of the League of Corinth in Alexander's stead.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=199–200}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=44, 93}}. <br />Gilley and Worthington discuss the ambiguity surrounding the exact title of [[Antipater]] aside from deputy ''[[hegemon]]'' of the [[League of Corinth]], with some sources calling him a regent, others a governor, others a simple general.<br />[[N. G. L. Hammond]] and [[F. W. Walbank]] state that Alexander the Great left "Macedonia under the command of Antipater, in case there was a rising in Greece." {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|p=32}}.</ref> Before Antipater embarked on his campaign in the [[Peloponnese]], Memnon, the governor of Thrace, was dissuaded from rebellion by use of diplomacy.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=200–201}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=58}}.</ref> Antipater deferred the punishment of Sparta to the League of Corinth headed by Alexander, who ultimately pardoned the Spartans on the condition that they submit fifty nobles as hostages.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=201}}.</ref> Antipater's hegemony was somewhat unpopular in Greece due to his practice (perhaps by order of Alexander) of exiling malcontents and garrisoning cities with Macedonian troops, yet in 330{{nbsp}}BC, Alexander declared that the [[tyrannies]] installed in Greece were to be abolished and Greek freedom was to be restored.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=201–203}}.</ref>

[[File:Diadochi LA.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|Kingdoms of the [[Diadochi]] c.{{nbsp}}301{{nbsp}}BC, after the [[Battle of Ipsus]]
{{legend|#787CAD|Kingdom of [[Ptolemy I Soter]]}}
{{legend|#50A249|Kingdom of [[Cassander]]}}
{{legend|#C38833|Kingdom of [[Lysimachus]]}}
{{legend|#C3B933|Kingdom of [[Seleucus I Nicator]]}}
{{legend|#AF3662|[[Epirus]]}}
Other
{{legend|#A361BD|[[Carthage]]}}
{{legend|#70A9BE|[[Roman Republic]]}}
{{legend|#85AB54|[[Ancient Greece|Greek States]]}}]]
[[File:Coins of Philip III Arrhidaeus. 323-317 BC.jpg|thumb|A golden ''[[stater]]'' of [[Philip III Arrhidaeus]] ({{reign|323|317|era=BC}}) bearing images of [[Athena]] (left) and [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]] (right)]]
When [[Death of Alexander the Great|Alexander the Great died]] at [[Babylon]] in 323{{nbsp}}BC, his mother Olympias immediately accused Antipater and his faction of poisoning him, although there is no evidence to confirm this.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=204}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=44}} for further details.</ref> With no official [[heir apparent]], the Macedonian military command split, with one side proclaiming Alexander's half-brother Philip{{nbsp}}III Arrhidaeus ({{reign|323|317|era=BC}}) as king and the other siding with the infant son of Alexander and Roxana, [[Alexander IV of Macedon|Alexander{{nbsp}}IV]] ({{reign|323|309|era=BC}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=204}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=115–117}} for further details.</ref> Except for the Euboeans and Boeotians, the Greeks also immediately rose up in a rebellion against Antipater known as the [[Lamian War]] (323–322{{nbsp}}BC).<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=204}}; {{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=209}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=69–70, 119}}.</ref> When Antipater was defeated at the 323{{nbsp}}BC [[Battle of Thermopylae (323 BC)|Battle of Thermopylae]], he fled to [[Lamia (city)|Lamia]] where he was besieged by the Athenian commander [[Leosthenes]]. A Macedonian army led by [[Leonnatus]] rescued Antipater by lifting the siege.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|pp=204–205}}; {{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=209–210}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=69, 119}}.</ref> Antipater defeated the rebellion, yet his death in 319{{nbsp}}BC left a power vacuum wherein the two proclaimed kings of Macedonia became pawns in [[Wars of the Diadochi|a power struggle]] between the ''[[diadochi]]'', the former generals of Alexander's army.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilley|Worthington|2010|p=205}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=118}} for further details.</ref>

A [[Partition of Babylon|council of the army convened in Babylon]] immediately after Alexander's death, naming Philip{{nbsp}}III as king and the [[chiliarch]] [[Perdiccas]] as his regent.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=208–209}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=117}}.</ref> Antipater, [[Antigonus Monophthalmus]], [[Craterus]], and Ptolemy formed a coalition against Perdiccas in a civil war initiated by Ptolemy's [[Tomb of Alexander the Great|seizure of the hearse of Alexander the Great]].<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=210–211}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=119–120}}.</ref> Perdiccas was assassinated in 321{{nbsp}}BC by his own officers during a failed campaign in Egypt against Ptolemy, where his march along the [[Nile River]] resulted in the drowning of 2,000 of his men.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=211}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=120–121}}.</ref> Although [[Eumenes of Cardia]] managed to kill Craterus in battle, this had little to no effect on the outcome of the 321{{nbsp}}BC [[Partition of Triparadisus]] in [[Syria (region)|Syria]] where the victorious coalition settled the issue of a new regency and territorial rights.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=211–212}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=121–122}}.</ref> Antipater was appointed as regent over the two kings. Before Antipater died in 319{{nbsp}}BC, he named the staunch Argead loyalist [[Polyperchon]] as his successor, passing over his own son [[Cassander]] and ignoring the right of the king to choose a new regent (since Philip{{nbsp}}III was considered mentally unstable), in effect bypassing the council of the army as well.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=207 n. #1, 212}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=122–123}}.</ref>

Forming an alliance with Ptolemy, Antigonus, and [[Lysimachus]], Cassander had his officer [[Nicanor (Antipatrid general)|Nicanor]] capture the [[Munichia]] fortress of Athens' port town [[Piraeus]] in defiance of Polyperchon's decree that Greek cities should be free of Macedonian garrisons, sparking the [[Second War of the Diadochi]] (319–315{{nbsp}}BC).<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=212–213}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=124–126}}.</ref> Given a string of military failures by Polyperchon, in 317{{nbsp}}BC, Philip{{nbsp}}III, by way of his politically engaged wife [[Eurydice II of Macedon]], officially replaced him as regent with Cassander.<ref name="adams 213 errington 126–127"/> Afterwards, Polyperchon desperately sought the aid of Olympias in Epirus.<ref name="adams 213 errington 126–127">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=213}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=126–127}}.</ref> A joint force of Epirotes, Aetolians, and Polyperchon's troops invaded Macedonia and forced the surrender of Philip{{nbsp}}III and Eurydice's army, allowing Olympias to execute the king and force his queen to commit suicide.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=213–214}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=127–128}}.</ref> Olympias then had Nicanor and dozens of other Macedonian nobles killed, but by the spring of 316{{nbsp}}BC, Cassander had defeated her forces, captured her, and placed her on trial for murder before sentencing her to death.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=214}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=128–129}}.</ref>

Cassander married Philip II's daughter [[Thessalonike of Macedon|Thessalonike]] and briefly extended Macedonian control into Illyria as far as [[Epidamnos]] (modern [[Durrës]], Albania). By 313{{nbsp}}BC, it was retaken by the Illyrian king [[Glaucias of Taulantii]].<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=214–215}}.</ref> By 316{{nbsp}}BC, Antigonus had taken the territory of Eumenes and managed to eject [[Seleucus Nicator]] from his Babylonian satrapy, leading Cassander, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus to issue a joint ultimatum to Antigonus in 315{{nbsp}}BC for him to surrender various territories in Asia.<ref name="Adams 2010 215"/> Antigonus promptly allied with Polyperchon, now based in Corinth, and issued an ultimatum of his own to Cassander, charging him with murder for executing Olympias and demanding that he hand over the royal family, King Alexander{{nbsp}}IV and the [[queen mother]] Roxana.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=215–216}}.</ref> The conflict that followed lasted until the winter of 312/311{{nbsp}}BC, when a new peace settlement recognized Cassander as general of Europe, Antigonus as "first in Asia", Ptolemy as general of Egypt, and Lysimachus as general of Thrace.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=216}}.</ref> Cassander had Alexander{{nbsp}}IV and Roxana put to death in the winter of 311/310{{nbsp}}BC, and between 306 and 305{{nbsp}}BC the ''diadochi'' were declared kings of their respective territories.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=216–217}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=129}}.</ref>

===Hellenistic era===
{{further|Antipatrid dynasty|Antigonid dynasty|Hellenistic period|Pyrrhic War|Chremonidean War|Cleomenean War}}
{{multiple image|right||perrow=2|total_width=300|
|image1=Pyrrhus MAN Napoli Inv6150 n03.jpg|width1=100
|image2=Demetrios Poliorketes MAN Napoli Inv6149.jpg|width2=100|
|image3=Seleuco I 2.JPG|width3=100|
|image4=Lisimaco (c.d.), copia augustea (23 ac-14 dc) da orig. del II sec ac. 6141.JPG|width4=76|
|footer=The portrait busts of [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]] (top left), [[Demetrius I of Macedon]] (top right), [[Seleucus I Nicator]] (bottom left), and [[Lysimachus]] (bottom right), [[Roman portraiture|Roman-era copies]] of [[Hellenistic sculpture|Hellenistic Greek originals]] from the [[Villa of the Papyri]] at [[Herculaneum]], [[Naples National Archaeological Museum]]}}

The beginning of [[Hellenistic Greece]] was defined by the struggle between the [[Antipatrid dynasty]], led first by [[Cassander]] ({{reign|305|297|era=BC}}), son of Antipater, and the [[Antigonid dynasty]], led by the Macedonian general [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus]] ({{reign|306|301|era=BC}}) and his son, the future king [[Demetrius I of Macedon|Demetrius{{nbsp}}I]] ({{reign|294|288|era=BC}}). Cassander besieged Athens in 303{{nbsp}}BC, but was forced to retreat to Macedonia when Demetrius invaded [[Boeotia]] to his rear, attempting to sever his path of retreat.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=217}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=145}}.</ref> While Antigonus and Demetrius attempted to recreate Philip{{nbsp}}II's [[League of Corinth|Hellenic league]] with themselves as dual hegemons, a revived coalition of Cassander, [[Ptolemy I Soter]] ({{reign|305|283|era=BC}}) of Egypt's [[Ptolemaic dynasty]], [[Seleucus I Nicator]] ({{reign|305|281|era=BC}}) of the [[Seleucid Empire]], and Lysimachus ({{reign|306|281|era=BC}}), [[List of rulers of Thrace and Dacia|King of Thrace]], defeated the Antigonids at the [[Battle of Ipsus]] in 301{{nbsp}}BC, killing Antigonus and forcing Demetrius into flight.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=217}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=145–147}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=61}}.</ref>

Cassander died in 297 BC, and his sickly son [[Philip IV of Macedon|Philip{{nbsp}}IV]] died the same year, succeeded by Cassander's other sons [[Alexander V of Macedon]] ({{reign|297|294|era=BC}}) and [[Antipater II of Macedon]] ({{reign|297|294|era=BC}}), with their mother [[Thessalonike of Macedon]] acting as regent.<ref name="adams 2010 218"/> While Demetrius fought against the Antipatrid forces in Greece, Antipater{{nbsp}}II killed his own mother to obtain power.<ref name="adams 2010 218"/> His desperate brother Alexander{{nbsp}}V then requested aid from [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]] ({{reign|297|272|era=BC}}),<ref name="adams 2010 218"/> who had fought alongside Demetrius at the Battle of Ipsus, but was sent to Egypt as a hostage as part of an agreement between Demetrius and Ptolemy{{nbsp}}I.<ref name="bringmann 2007 61">{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=61}}.</ref> In exchange for defeating the forces of Antipater{{nbsp}}II and forcing him to flee to the court of Lysimachus in Thrace, Pyrrhus was awarded the westernmost portions of the Macedonian kingdom.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=218}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=153}}.</ref> Demetrius had his nephew Alexander{{nbsp}}V assassinated and was then proclaimed king of Macedonia, but his subjects protested against his aloof, Eastern-style [[autocracy]].<ref name="adams 2010 218">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=218}}.</ref>

War broke out between Pyrrhus and Demetrius in 290{{nbsp}}BC when [[Lanassa (wife of Pyrrhus)|Lanassa, wife of Pyrrhus]], daughter of [[Agathocles of Syracuse]], left him for Demetrius and offered him her [[dowry]] of [[Corcyra]].<ref name="adams 218–219 bringmann 61" /> The war dragged on until 288{{nbsp}}BC, when Demetrius lost the support of [[Ancient Macedonians|the Macedonians]] and fled the country. Macedonia was then divided between Pyrrhus and Lysimachus, the former taking [[western Macedonia]] and the latter eastern Macedonia.<ref name="adams 218–219 bringmann 61">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=218–219}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=61}}.</ref> By 286{{nbsp}}BC, Lysimachus had expelled Pyrrhus and his forces from Macedonia.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=219}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=61}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=155}}. <br />Conversely, Errington dates [[Lysimachus]]' reunification of Macedonia by expelling [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]] as occurring in 284{{nbsp}}BC, not 286{{nbsp}}BC.</ref> In 282{{nbsp}}BC, a new war erupted between Seleucus{{nbsp}}I and Lysimachus; the latter was killed in the [[Battle of Corupedion]], allowing Seleucus{{nbsp}}I to take control of Thrace and Macedonia.<ref name="adams 219 bringmann 61">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=219}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=61}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=156–157}}.</ref> In two dramatic reversals of fortune, Seleucus{{nbsp}}I was assassinated in 281{{nbsp}}BC by his officer [[Ptolemy Keraunos]], son of Ptolemy{{nbsp}}I and grandson of Antipater, who was then proclaimed king of Macedonia before being killed in battle in 279{{nbsp}}BC by [[Galatians (people)|Celtic invaders]] in the [[Gallic invasion of Greece]].<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=219}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=61–63}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=159–160}}.</ref> The Macedonian army proclaimed the general [[Sosthenes of Macedon]] as king, although he apparently refused the title.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=160}}.</ref> After defeating the [[Gauls|Gallic]] ruler [[Bolgios]] and driving out the raiding party of [[Brennus (3rd century BC)|Brennus]], Sosthenes died and left a chaotic situation in Macedonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=160–161}}.</ref> The Gallic invaders ravaged Macedonia until [[Antigonus Gonatas]], son of Demetrius, defeated them in Thrace at the 277{{nbsp}}BC [[Battle of Lysimachia]] and was then proclaimed king [[Antigonus II of Macedon]] ({{reign|1=277|2=274|3=272|4=239|era=BC}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=219}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=63}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=162–163}}.</ref>

In 280 BC, Pyrrhus embarked on a campaign in [[Magna Graecia]] (i.e. [[southern Italy]]) against the [[Roman Republic]] known as the [[Pyrrhic War]], followed by his [[Siege of Syracuse (278 BC)|invasion of Sicily]].<ref name="adams 219–220 bringmann 2007 63">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=219–220}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=63}}.</ref> Ptolemy Keraunos secured his position on the Macedonian throne by giving Pyrrhus five thousand soldiers and twenty [[war elephant]]s for this endeavor.<ref name="bringmann 2007 61"/> Pyrrhus returned to Epirus in 275{{nbsp}}BC after the ultimate failure of both campaigns, which contributed to the [[rise of Rome]] because [[Colonies in antiquity|Greek cities in southern Italy]] such as [[Taranto|Tarentum]] now became Roman allies.<ref name="adams 219–220 bringmann 2007 63"/> Pyrrhus invaded Macedonia in 274{{nbsp}}BC, defeating the largely mercenary army of Antigonus{{nbsp}}II at the 274{{nbsp}}BC [[Battle of the Aous (274 BC)|Battle of Aous]] and driving him out of Macedonia, forcing him to seek refuge with his naval fleet in the Aegean.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=219–220}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=63}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=164}}.</ref>

[[File:Ancient Mieza, Macedonian tombs of Lefkadia, Tomb of Lyson and Kallikles a72b9b998c2e98a1390dbae9e032ea1c.jpg|thumb|Paintings of [[Hellenistic]]-era military arms and armor from a tomb in ancient [[Mieza, Macedonia|Mieza]] (modern-day Lefkadia), [[Imathia]], [[Central Macedonia]], [[Greece]], 2nd century{{nbsp}}BC]]
Pyrrhus lost much of his support among the Macedonians in 273{{nbsp}}BC when his unruly Gallic mercenaries plundered the royal cemetery of Aigai.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=220}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=164–165}}.</ref> Pyrrhus pursued Antigonus{{nbsp}}II in the Peloponnese, yet Antigonus{{nbsp}}II was ultimately able to recapture Macedonia.<ref name="adams 2010 220">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=220}}.</ref> Pyrrhus was killed while besieging [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]] in 272{{nbsp}}BC, allowing Antigonus{{nbsp}}II to reclaim the rest of Greece.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=220}}; {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=63}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=167}}.</ref> He then restored the Argead dynastic graves at Aigai and annexed the [[Paeonia (kingdom)|Kingdom of Paeonia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=220}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=165–166}}.</ref>

The [[Aetolian League]] hampered Antigonus{{nbsp}}II's control over [[Central Greece (geographic region)|central Greece]], and the formation of the [[Achaean League]] in 251{{nbsp}}BC pushed Macedonian forces out of much of the Peloponnese and at times incorporated Athens and Sparta.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=221}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=167–168}} about the resurgence of [[Sparta]] under [[Areus I]].</ref> While the Seleucid Empire aligned with Antigonid Macedonia against Ptolemaic Egypt during the [[Syrian Wars]], the Ptolemaic navy heavily disrupted Antigonus{{nbsp}}II's efforts to control mainland Greece.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=221}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=168}}.</ref> With the aid of the Ptolemaic navy, the Athenian statesman [[Chremonides]] led a revolt against Macedonian authority known as the [[Chremonidean War]] (267–261{{nbsp}}BC).<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=221}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=168–169}}.</ref> By 265{{nbsp}}BC, Athens was surrounded and besieged by Antigonus{{nbsp}}II's forces, and a Ptolemaic fleet was defeated in the [[Battle of Cos]]. Athens finally surrendered in 261{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=221}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=169–171}}.</ref> After Macedonia formed an alliance with the Seleucid ruler [[Antiochus II]], a peace settlement between Antigonus{{nbsp}}II and [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus]] of Egypt was finally struck in 255{{nbsp}}BC.<ref name="adams 2010 221">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=221}}.</ref>

[[File:Apollon Tempel im antiken Korinth.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Ancient Greek temple|Temple]] of [[Apollo]] at [[Corinth]], built c.{{nbsp}}540{{nbsp}}BC, with the [[Acrocorinth]] (i.e. the [[acropolis]] of Corinth that once held a [[Antigonid Macedonian army|Macedonian garrison]])<ref name="adams 2010 222"/> seen in the background]]
In 251 BC, [[Aratus of Sicyon]] led a rebellion against Antigonus{{nbsp}}II, and in 250{{nbsp}}BC, Ptolemy{{nbsp}}II declared his support for the self-proclaimed King [[Alexander of Corinth]].<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=221–222}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=172}}.</ref> Although Alexander died in 246{{nbsp}}BC and Antigonus was able to score a naval victory against the Ptolemies [[Battle of Andros (246 BC)|at Andros]], the Macedonians lost the [[Acrocorinth]] to the forces of Aratus in 243{{nbsp}}BC, followed by the induction of Corinth into the Achaean League.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=222}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=172–173}}.</ref> Antigonus{{nbsp}}II made peace with the Achaean League in 240{{nbsp}}BC, ceding the territories that he had lost in Greece.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=222}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=173}}.</ref> Antigonus{{nbsp}}II died in 239{{nbsp}}BC and was succeeded by his son [[Demetrius II of Macedon]] ({{reign|239|229|era=BC}}). Seeking an alliance with Macedonia to defend against the Aetolians, the [[queen mother]] and regent of Epirus, [[Olympias II of Epirus|Olympias II]], offered her daughter [[Phthia of Macedon]] to Demetrius{{nbsp}}II in marriage. Demetrius II accepted her proposal, but he damaged relations with the Seleucids by divorcing [[Stratonice of Macedon]].<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=222}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=174}}.</ref> Although the Aetolians formed an alliance with the Achaean League as a result, Demetrius{{nbsp}}II was able to invade Boeotia and capture it from the Aetolians by 236{{nbsp}}BC.<ref name="adams 2010 222">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=222}}.</ref>

The Achaean League managed to capture [[Megalopolis, Greece|Megalopolis]] in 235{{nbsp}}BC, and by the end of Demetrius{{nbsp}}II's reign most of the Peloponnese except Argos was taken from the Macedonians.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=223}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=173–174}}.</ref> Demetrius{{nbsp}}II also lost an ally [[Epirus (ancient state)|in Epirus]] when the [[Deidamia II of Epirus|monarchy was toppled]] in a [[Epirote League|republican revolution]].<ref name="adams 223 errington 174">{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=223}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=174}}.</ref> Demetrius{{nbsp}}II enlisted the aid of the [[Illyria]]n king [[Agron of Illyria|Agron]] to defend [[Acarnania]] against Aetolia, and in 229{{nbsp}}BC, they managed to defeat the combined navies of the Aetolian and Achaean Leagues at the [[Battle of Paxos]].<ref name="adams 223 errington 174"/> Another Illyrian ruler, [[Longarus]] of the [[Dardanian Kingdom]], invaded Macedonia and defeated an army of Demetrius{{nbsp}}II shortly before his death in 229{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=223}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=174–175}}.</ref> Although his young son [[Philip V of Macedon|Philip]] immediately inherited the throne, his regent [[Antigonus III Doson]] ({{reign|229|221|era=BC}}), nephew of Antigonus{{nbsp}}II, was proclaimed king by the army, with Philip as his heir, following a string of military victories against the Illyrians in the north and the Aetolians in Thessaly.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=223}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=175–176}}.</ref>

[[File:Tetradrachm, 229-221, Antigonos Doson.jpg|thumb|A ''[[tetradrachm]]'' minted during the reign of [[Antigonus III Doson]] ({{reign|229|221|era=BC}}), possibly at [[Amphipolis]], bearing the portrait image of [[Poseidon]] on the [[obverse]] and on the reverse a scene depicting [[Apollo]] sitting on the [[Hellenistic-era warships|prow of a ship]]]]
Aratus sent an embassy to Antigonus III in 226{{nbsp}}BC seeking an unexpected alliance now that the reformist king [[Cleomenes III]] of Sparta was threatening the rest of Greece in the [[Cleomenean War]] (229–222{{nbsp}}BC).<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=223–224}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2013|p=314}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=179–180}} for further details.</ref> In exchange for military aid, Antigonus{{nbsp}}III demanded the return of Corinth to Macedonian control, which Aratus finally agreed to in 225{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|pp=223–224}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2013|p=314}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=180–181}}.</ref> In 224{{nbsp}}BC, Antigonus{{nbsp}}III's forces took [[Arcadia (ancient region)|Arcadia]] from Sparta. After forming a Hellenic league in the same vein as Philip{{nbsp}}II's League of Corinth, he managed to defeat Sparta at the [[Battle of Sellasia]] in 222{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=224}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2013|p=314}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=181–183}}.</ref> Sparta was occupied by a foreign power for the first time in its history, restoring Macedonia's position as the leading power in Greece.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=224}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=182}} about the Macedonian military's occupation of Sparta following the [[Battle of Sellasia]].</ref> Antigonus died a year later, perhaps from [[tuberculosis]], leaving behind a strong [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic kingdom]] for his successor Philip{{nbsp}}V.<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=224}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=183–184}}.</ref>

[[Philip V of Macedon]] ({{reign|221|179|era=BC}}) faced immediate challenges to his authority by the Illyrian [[Dardani]] and Aetolian League.<ref>{{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=229}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=184–185}}.</ref> Philip{{nbsp}}V and his allies were successful against the Aetolians and their allies in the [[Social War (220–217 BC)]], yet he made peace with the Aetolians once he heard of incursions by the Dardani in the north and the [[History of Carthage|Carthaginian]] victory over [[History of the Roman Republic|the Romans]] at the [[Battle of Lake Trasimene]] in 217{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=229}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=185–186, 189}}.</ref> [[Demetrius of Pharos]] is alleged to have convinced Philip{{nbsp}}V to first [[Illyrian Wars|secure Illyria]] in advance of an invasion of the [[Italian peninsula]].<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=229–230}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=186–189}} for further details. <br />Errington is skeptical that Philip&nbsp;V at this point had any intentions of invading southern Italy via Illyria once the latter was secured, deeming his plans to be "more modest", {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=189}}.</ref> In 216{{nbsp}}BC, Philip{{nbsp}}V sent a hundred [[Hellenistic-era warships|light warships]] into the [[Adriatic Sea]] to attack Illyria, a move that prompted [[Scerdilaidas]] of the [[Ardiaean Kingdom]] to appeal to the Romans for aid.<ref>{{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=230}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=189–190}}.</ref> Rome responded by sending ten heavy [[quinquereme]]s from [[Roman Sicily]] to patrol the Illyrian coasts, causing Philip{{nbsp}}V to reverse course and order his fleet to retreat, averting open conflict for the time being.<ref>{{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=230–231}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=190–191}}.</ref>

===Conflict with Rome===
{{main|Macedonian Wars}}
{{further|Cretan War (205–200 BC)|Punic Wars|Macedonian–Carthaginian Treaty}}
[[File:Macedonia and the Aegean World c.200.png|thumb|upright=1.2|The Kingdom of Macedonia (orange) under [[Philip V of Macedon|Philip{{nbsp}}V]] ({{reign|221|179|era=BC}}), with Macedonian [[dependent state]]s (dark yellow), the [[Seleucid Empire]] (bright yellow), [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] [[protectorate]]s (dark green), the [[Kingdom of Pergamon]] (light green), independent states (light purple), and possessions of the [[Ptolemaic Empire]] (violet purple)]]
In 215 BC, at the height of the [[Second Punic War]] with the [[Carthaginian Empire]], [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] authorities intercepted a ship off the [[Calabria]]n coast holding a Macedonian envoy and a Carthaginian ambassador in possession of a treaty composed by [[Hannibal]] declaring an alliance with Philip{{nbsp}}V.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=79}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=231}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=192}}; also mentioned by {{harvnb|Gruen|1986|p=19}}.</ref> [[Macedonian–Carthaginian Treaty|The treaty]] stipulated that [[History of Carthage|Carthage]] had the sole right to negotiate the terms of Rome's hypothetical surrender and promised mutual aid if a resurgent Rome should seek revenge against either Macedonia or Carthage.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=80}}; see also {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=231}} and {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=191–193}} for further details.</ref> Although the Macedonians were perhaps only interested in safeguarding their newly conquered territories in Illyria,<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=191–193, 210}}.</ref> the Romans were nevertheless able to thwart whatever grand ambitions Philip{{nbsp}}V had for the Adriatic region during the [[First Macedonian War]] (214–205{{nbsp}}BC). In 214{{nbsp}}BC, Rome positioned a [[Roman navy|naval fleet]] at [[Oricus]], which was assaulted along with [[Apollonia (Illyria)|Apollonia]] by Macedonian forces.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=82}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=193}}.</ref> When the Macedonians captured [[Lissus (Illyria)|Lissus]] in 212{{nbsp}}BC, the [[Roman Senate]] responded by inciting the Aetolian League, Sparta, [[Ancient Elis|Elis]], [[Messenia]], and [[Attalus I]] ({{reign|241|197|era=BC}}) of [[Pergamon]] to wage war against Philip{{nbsp}}V, keeping him occupied and away from Italy.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=82}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=232–233}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=193–194}}; {{harvnb|Gruen|1986|pp=17–18, 20}}.</ref>

The Aetolian League concluded a [[peace agreement]] with Philip{{nbsp}}V in 206{{nbsp}}BC, and the [[Roman Republic]] negotiated the [[Treaty of Phoenice]] in 205{{nbsp}}BC, ending the war and allowing the Macedonians to retain some captured settlements in Illyria.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=83}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=233–234}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=195–196}}; {{harvnb|Gruen|1986|p=21}}; see also {{harvnb|Gruen|1986|pp=18–19}} for details on the [[Aetolian League]]'s treaty with [[Philip V of Macedon]] and Rome's rejection of the second attempt by the Aetolians to seek Roman aid, viewing the Aetolians as having violated the earlier treaty.</ref> Although the Romans rejected an Aetolian request in 202{{nbsp}}BC for Rome to declare war on Macedonia once again, the Roman Senate gave serious consideration to the similar offer made by Pergamon and its ally [[Rhodes]] in 201{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=85}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=196–197}} for further details.</ref> These states were concerned about Philip{{nbsp}}V's alliance with [[Antiochus III the Great]] of the Seleucid Empire, which invaded the war-weary and financially exhausted Ptolemaic Empire in the [[Fifth Syrian War]] (202–195{{nbsp}}BC) as Philip{{nbsp}}V captured Ptolemaic settlements in the Aegean Sea.<ref>{{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=234–235}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=196–198}}; see also {{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=86}} for further details.</ref> Although Rome's envoys played a critical role in convincing Athens to join the anti-Macedonian alliance with Pergamon and Rhodes in 200{{nbsp}}BC, the ''[[comitia centuriata]]'' (people's assembly) rejected the Roman Senate's proposal for a declaration of war on Macedonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=85–86}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=235–236}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=199–201}}; {{harvnb|Gruen|1986|p=22}}.</ref> Meanwhile, Philip{{nbsp}}V conquered territories in the [[Hellespont]] and [[Bosporus]] as well as Ptolemaic [[Samos]], which led Rhodes to [[Cretan War (205–200 BC)|form an alliance with Pergamon]], [[Byzantium]], [[Cyzicus]], and [[Chios]] against Macedonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=86}}; see also {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=235}} for further details.</ref> Despite Philip{{nbsp}}V's nominal alliance with the Seleucid king, he lost the naval [[Battle of Chios (201 BC)|Battle of Chios]] in 201{{nbsp}}BC and was blockaded at [[Bargylia]] by the Rhodian and Pergamene navies.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=86}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=197–198}}.</ref>

[[File:Philip V. 221-179 BCE.jpg|thumb|left|A [[tetradrachm]] of [[Philip V of Macedon]] ({{reign|221|179|era=BC}}), with the king's portrait on the [[obverse]] and [[Athena Alkidemos]] brandishing a thunderbolt on the reverse]]
While Philip V was busy fighting Rome's Greek allies, Rome viewed this as an opportunity to punish this former ally of Hannibal with a war that they hoped would supply a victory and require few resources.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=86–87}}. <br />{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=202–203}}: "Roman desire for revenge and private hopes of famous victories were probably the decisive reasons for the outbreak of the war."</ref> The Roman Senate demanded that Philip{{nbsp}}V cease hostilities against neighboring Greek powers and defer to an international arbitration committee for settling grievances.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=87}}.</ref> When the ''comitia centuriata'' finally voted in approval of the Roman Senate's declaration of war in 200{{nbsp}}BC and handed their [[ultimatum]] to Philip{{nbsp}}V, demanding that a [[tribunal]] assess the damages owed to Rhodes and Pergamon, the Macedonian king rejected it. This marked the beginning of the [[Second Macedonian War]] (200–197{{nbsp}}BC), with [[Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus]] spearheading [[military operation]]s in Apollonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=87–88}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=199–200}}; see also {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=235–236}} for further details.</ref>

[[File:Eumene II, fondatore della biblioteca di pergamo, copia romana (50 dc ca) da orig,. ellenistico su busto moderno, MANN 02.JPG|thumb|upright|Bronze bust of [[Eumenes II]] of [[Pergamon]], a [[Roman sculpture|Roman copy]] of a [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic]] [[Ancient Greek sculpture|Greek original]], from the [[Villa of the Papyri]] in [[Herculaneum]]]]
The Macedonians successfully defended their territory for roughly two years,<ref>{{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=236}}.</ref> but the [[Roman consul]] [[Titus Quinctius Flamininus]] managed to expel Philip{{nbsp}}V from Macedonia in 198{{nbsp}}BC, forcing his men to take refuge in Thessaly.<ref name="bringmann 2007 88">{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=88}}.</ref> When the Achaean League switched their loyalties from Macedonia to Rome, the Macedonian king sued for peace, but the terms offered were considered too stringent, and so the war continued.<ref name="bringmann 2007 88"/> In June 197{{nbsp}}BC, the Macedonians were defeated at the [[Battle of Cynoscephalae]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=88}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=236}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=203}}.</ref> Rome then ratified a treaty that forced Macedonia to relinquish control of much of its Greek possessions outside of Macedonia proper, if only to act as a buffer against Illyrian and Thracian incursions into Greece.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=88}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=236–237}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=204}}.</ref> Although some Greeks suspected Roman intentions of supplanting Macedonia as the new hegemonic power in Greece, Flaminius announced at the [[Isthmian Games]] of 196{{nbsp}}BC that Rome intended to preserve Greek [[liberty]] by leaving behind no garrisons and by not exacting [[tribute]] of any kind.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=88–89}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=237}}.</ref> His promise was delayed by negotiations with the Spartan king [[Nabis of Sparta|Nabis]], who had meanwhile captured Argos, yet Roman forces evacuated Greece in 194{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=89–90}}; see also {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=237}} and {{harvnb|Gruen|1986|pp=20–21, 24}} for further details.</ref>

Encouraged by the Aetolian League and their calls to liberate Greece from the Romans, the [[Seleucid dynasty|Seleucid king]] Antiochus{{nbsp}}III landed with his army at [[Demetrias]], Thessaly, in 192{{nbsp}}BC, and was elected ''strategos'' by the Aetolians.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=90–91}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=237–238}}.</ref> Macedonia, the Achaean League, and other Greek city-states maintained their alliance with Rome.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=91}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=238}}.</ref> The Romans [[Roman–Seleucid War|defeated the Seleucids]] in the 191{{nbsp}}BC [[Battle of Thermopylae (191 BC)|Battle of Thermopylae]] as well as the [[Battle of Magnesia]] in 190{{nbsp}}BC, forcing the Seleucids to pay a [[war indemnity]], dismantle most of its navy, and abandon its claims to any territories north or west of the [[Taurus Mountains]] in the 188{{nbsp}}BC [[Treaty of Apamea]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=91–92}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=238}}; see also {{harvnb|Gruen|1986|pp=30, 33}} for further details.</ref> With Rome's acceptance, Philip{{nbsp}}V was able to capture some cities in central Greece in 191–189{{nbsp}}BC that had been allied to Antiochus{{nbsp}}III, while Rhodes and [[Eumenes II]] ({{reign|197|159|era=BC}}) of Pergamon gained territories in Asia Minor.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=92}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=238}}.</ref>

Failing to please all sides in various territorial disputes, the Roman Senate decided in 184/183{{nbsp}}BC to force Philip{{nbsp}}V to abandon [[Aenus (Thrace)|Aenus]] and [[Maroneia|Maronea]], since these had been declared free cities in the Treaty of Apamea.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=93–97}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=239}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=207–208}}. <br />Bringmann dates this event of handing over [[Aenus (Thrace)|Aenus]] and [[Maroneia|Maronea]] along the [[Thracian]] coast as 183{{nbsp}}BC, while Eckstein dates it as 184{{nbsp}}BC.</ref> This assuaged the fear of Eumenes{{nbsp}}II that Macedonia could pose a threat to his lands in the Hellespont.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=97}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=207–208}} for further details.</ref> [[Perseus of Macedon]] ({{reign|179|168|era=BC}}) succeeded Philip{{nbsp}}V and executed [[Demetrius (son of Philip V)|his brother Demetrius]], who had been favored by the Romans but was charged by Perseus with [[high treason]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=97}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=240–241}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=211–213}} for a discussion about Perseus's actions during the early part of his reign.</ref> Perseus then attempted to form marriage alliances with [[Prusias II of Bithynia]] and [[Seleucus IV Philopator]] of the Seleucid Empire, along with renewed relations with Rhodes that greatly unsettled Eumenes{{nbsp}}II.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=97–98}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=240}}.</ref> Although Eumenes{{nbsp}}II attempted to undermine these diplomatic relationships, Perseus fostered an alliance with the [[Boeotian League]], extended his authority into Illyria [[Abrupolis|and Thrace]], and in 174{{nbsp}}BC, won the role of managing the Temple of Apollo at Delphi as a member of the [[Amphictyonic Council]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=98}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=240}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=212–213}}.</ref>

{{multiple image
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| image1 = Perseus of Macedon BM.jpg
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| image2 = The Triumph of Aemilius Paulus (detail).jpg
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| footer = Left, a [[tetradrachm]] of [[Perseus of Macedon]] ({{reign|179|168|era=BC}}), [[British Museum]]. Right, ''The Triumph of [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus|Aemilius Paulus]]'' (detail) by [[Carle Vernet]], 1789.
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Eumenes II came to Rome in 172 BC and delivered a speech to [[Senate of the Roman Republic|the Senate]] denouncing the alleged crimes and transgressions of Perseus.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=98–99}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=241–242}}.</ref> This convinced the Roman Senate to declare the [[Third Macedonian War]] (171–168{{nbsp}}BC).<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=98–99}}; see also {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=242}}, who says that "Rome&nbsp;... as the sole remaining superpower&nbsp;... would not accept Macedonia as a peer competitor or equal." <br />[[Klaus Bringmann]] asserts that negotiations with Macedonia were completely ignored due to Rome's "[[Realpolitik|political calculation]]" that the Macedonian kingdom had to be destroyed to ensure the elimination of the "supposed source of all the difficulties which Rome was having in the Greek world".</ref> Although Perseus's forces were victorious against the Romans at the [[Battle of Callinicus]] in 171{{nbsp}}BC, the Macedonian army was defeated at the [[Battle of Pydna]] in June 168{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=99}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=243–244}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=215–216}}; {{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|p=43}}.</ref> Perseus fled to [[Samothrace]] but surrendered shortly afterwards, was brought to [[Rome]] for the [[Roman triumph|triumph]] of [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus]], and was placed under [[house arrest]] at [[Alba Fucens]], where he died in 166{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=99}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=245}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=204–205, 216}}; see also {{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|p=43}} for further details.</ref> The Romans abolished the Macedonian monarchy by installing four separate allied [[republic]]s in its stead, their capitals located at [[Amphipolis]], [[Thessalonica]], [[Pella]], and [[Pelagonia]].<ref name="bringmann 99–100 eckstein 245">{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=99–100}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=245}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=216–217}}; see also {{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|pp=43–46}} for further details.</ref> The Romans imposed severe laws inhibiting many social and economic interactions between the inhabitants of these republics, including the banning of marriages between them and the (temporary) prohibition on gold and silver mining.<ref name="bringmann 99–100 eckstein 245"/> A certain [[Andriscus]], claiming Antigonid descent, rebelled against the Romans and was pronounced king of Macedonia, defeating the army of the Roman [[praetor]] Publius Juventius Thalna during the [[Fourth Macedonian War]] (150–148{{nbsp}}BC).<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|p=104}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=246–247}}.</ref> Despite this, Andriscus was defeated in 148{{nbsp}}BC at the [[Battle of Pydna (148 BC)|second Battle of Pydna]] by [[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus]], whose forces occupied the kingdom.<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=104–105}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|p=247}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=216–217}}.</ref> This was followed in 146{{nbsp}}BC by the Roman [[destruction of Carthage]] and victory over the Achaean League at the [[Battle of Corinth (146 BC)|Battle of Corinth]], ushering in the era of [[Roman Greece]] and the gradual establishment of the [[Roman province of Macedonia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bringmann|2007|pp=104–105}}; {{harvnb|Eckstein|2010|pp=247–248}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=203–205, 216–217}}.</ref>