Editing Lugus (section)

==Linguistic evidence==
===Epigraphy===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
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|{{lang|la|LUGOVIBUS / SACRUM / L(UCIUS) L(ICINIUS?) URCI/CO(M) COLLE/GIO SUTORU/M D(ONUM) D(EDIT)}}
|[[File:CIL II, 2818 in Nicolas Rabal, Soria.jpg|150px]]
|Inscribed on an altar. Found in the Roman city of [[Uxama Argaela]], near [[Burgo de Osma-Ciudad de Osma|Osma]], [[Province of Soria|Soria]], Spain.<ref name=MarcoSimon/>{{rp|213}}
|[[Latin]]
|{{CIL|2|2818}}
|Translated, the inscription reads "Consecrated to the Lugoves. Lucius L(icinius?), of the Urcici donated it on behalf of the College of Shoemakers".<ref name=MarcoSimon/>{{rp|213}} Connected to a trait of Welsh Lleu, discussed below.<ref name=Hutton>{{cite journal |title=Medieval Welsh Literature and Pre-Christian Deities |last=Hutton |first=Ronald |pages=57–85 |journal=Cambrian Medieval Celtic Studies |volume=61 |date=2011 }}</ref>{{rp|71}}
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|{{lang|la|DIBUS M(AGNIS ?) / LUCOBO(S) AVE }}(or {{lang|la|NE) / T?ORIA AVITA / E? / CON EX VISU / CONSULENTIB(US)}}{{efn|1=This reading follows [[Jürgen Untermann]].<ref name=MarcoSimon/>{{rp|213}} A large number of other readings have been given, collected in an article by [[Ana María Vázquez Hoys]].<ref name=VH>{{cite journal |last=Vázquez Hoys |first=Ana María |title=La estela de la confusión: ''CIL'' II 6338v y los fantasmas |doi=10.5944/etfii.25.2012.10289 |journal=Espacio, Tiempo y Forma |volume=25 |date=2012 |issue=25 |pages=207–244|s2cid=163035647 }}</ref>{{rp|214–216}}}}
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|Inscribed on a stele. Found in {{ill|Peña Amaya|es}}, [[Burgos]], Spain.<ref name=MarcoSimon/>{{rp|213}}<ref name=VH/>{{rp|212}}
|Latin
|''[[Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum|CIL]]'' [https://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_url.php?s_sprache=en&p_publication=CIL+02%2C+06338v II, 6338v]
|This poorly preserved  inscription has been interpreted by [[Jürgen Untermann]] as a dedication to the Lugoves made, as a result of a vision, by a person with the [[cognomen]] Avita. Above the inscription is an [[ithyphallic]] figure with his arms outstretched (in [[orant]] position).<ref name=MarcoSimon/>{{rp|213}}<ref name=VH/>
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|{{lang|la|LUGUBO / ARQUIENOB(O) / C(AIUS) IULIUS / HISPANUS / V(OTUM) S(OLVIT) L(IBENS) M(ERITO)}}
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|Inscribed on an altar. Found in the church of San Martín de Liñarán in [[Sober, Lugo|Sober]], [[Province of Lugo|Lugo]], Spain.<ref name=MarcoSimon/>{{rp|212}}
|Latin
|{{abbr|''IRPL''|Arias Vilas, F.; Le Roux, P.; Tranoy, A. (1979) Inscriptions romaines de la province de Lugo. Paris.}} [https://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_url.php?s_sprache=en&p_edcs_id=EDCS-11901713 67]
|Translated, the inscription reads "To the Luguves Arquieni, with all merit. Caius Iulius Hispanus in fulfilment of a vow".<ref name=MarcoSimon/>{{rp|212}}
|-
|{{lang|la|SACRUM / LUCOUBU / ARQUIENI(S) / SILONIU(S) / SILO / EX VOTO}}
|[[File:Ara aos Lugoves.jpg|150px]]
|Inscribed on an altar. From the town of Sinoga in [[Rábade]], [[Province of Lugo|Lugo]], Spain.<ref name=MarcoSimon/>{{rp|211}}
|Latin
|{{abbr|''IRPL''|Arias Vilas, F.; Le Roux, P.; Tranoy, A. (1979) Inscriptions romaines de la province de Lugo. Paris.}} [https://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_url.php?s_sprache=en&p_edcs_id=EDCS-11901714 68]
|Translated, the inscription reads "Dedicated to the Lucouves Arquieni. Silonius Silo in fulfilment of a vow".<ref name=MarcoSimon/>{{rp|211}}
|-
|{{lang|la|LUCOBO / AROUSA(BO?) / V(OTUM) S(OLVIT) L(IBENS) M(ERITO) / RUTIL[IA] / ANTIANIA}}
|
|Inscribed on an altar. Found in a 2nd-century CE religious building in the city of [[Lugo]], Spain.<ref name=MarcoSimon/>{{rp|209}}
|Latin
|{{AE|2003|00951}}
|Translated, the inscription reads "To the Lucoves Arousae, with all merit, Rutilia Antiania, in willing fulfilment of her vow".<ref name=MarcoSimon/>{{rp|209}}
|-
|{{lang|la|LUC(OBO) GUD/ AROVIS? / VALE[RIUS?] / CLEM[ENS?] / V(OTUM) L(IBENTER) S(OLVIT)}}
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|Inscribed on an altar. Found in a 2nd-century CE religious building in the city of [[Lugo]], Spain.<ref name=MarcoSimon/>{{rp|209}}
|Latin
|{{AE|2003|00952}}
|Translated, the inscription reads "To the Lucoves Gudarovi(?), Valerius (?) Clemens (?) in willing fulfilment of his vow".<ref name=MarcoSimon/>{{rp|209}}
|-
|{{lang|la|[LUCU]BU / ARQ(U)IE / NIS [---] / IULIU(S) [---] V(OTUM) S(OLVIT)}}
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|Inscribed on an altar. Found in {{ill|San Vicente de Castillón|es}}, [[Province of Lugo|Lugo]], Spain.<ref name=MarcoSimon/>{{rp|212}}
|Latin
|''[[BRAH]]'' [https://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_url.php?s_sprache=en&p_edcs_id=EDCS-74200325 1971 185].
|Translated, the inscription reads "To the Lucuves Arquieni(...) Iulius (...) in fulfilment of a vow".<ref name=MarcoSimon/>{{rp|212}}
|-
|{{lang|la|RUFINA / LUCUBUS / V(OTUM) S(OLVIT) L(IBENS) M(ERITO)}}
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|Inscribed on a stele. Found in [[Nemausus]] (Roman [[Nîmes]]), [[Gard]], France.<ref name=MarcoSimon/>{{rp|213}}
|Latin
|{{CIL|12|3080}}
|
|-
|{{lang|la|LUGOVES}}
|[[File:CIL XIII, 5078 in Blavignac, Histoire de l'architecture sacrée.jpg|150px]]
|Inscribed on a [[Corinthian order|Corinthian capital]]. Found in the Roman city of [[Aventicum]], near [[Avenches]], [[Vaud]], [[Switzerland]].<ref name=Tovar/>{{rp|594}}
|Latin
|{{CIL|13|5078}}
|[[Karl Zangemeister]] suggested that the inscription referred to the figure originally set on the capital.<ref name=Tovar/>{{rp|594}}
|-
|{{lang|xtg|ΛΟΥΓΟΥϹ}} (translit.: {{transliteration|xtg|lougous}})
|
|Inscribed on a ceramic dish. Found in the {{ill|Oppidum de l'Ermitage|fr}}, in [[Alès]], [[Gard]], France.<ref name=G-159>''[[Recueil des inscriptions gauloises|RIG]]'' I [https://riig.huma-num.fr/documents/GAR-01-04 G-159] via ''Recueil informatisé des inscriptions gauloises''.</ref>
|[[Gaulish]]
|''[[Recueil des inscriptions gauloises|RIG]]'' I [https://riig.huma-num.fr/documents/GAR-01-04 G-159]
|The inscription is probably an ownership mark, so at most records a [[theophoric personal name]].<ref name=G-159/>
|-
|{{lang|xtg|[...] bissiet lugedessummiiis luge / dessumíis lugedessumiis luxe}}
|[[File:M0120 D 2000-1-870 01.jpg|150px]]
|Inscribed on a lead tablet. Found in [[Chamalières]], [[Puy-de-Dome]], France.<ref name=L-100/>
|Gaulish
|''[[Recueil des inscriptions gauloises|RIG]]'' II.2 L-100
|At the end of the [[Chamalières tablet]] inscription, {{lang|xtg|luge dessumiis}} is repeated three times. This feature is very difficult to interpret, but {{ill|Karl-Horst Schmidt|de}} has interpreted it as an incantation of Lugus (in the singular). This interpretation has not been widely accepted.<ref name=L-100>''[[Recueil des inscriptions gauloises|RIG]]'' II.2 L-100 in Lambert, Pierre-Yves (2002). ''Recueil des inscriptions gauloises. II, fasc. 2, Textes gallo-latins sur instrumentum''. Paris: Éd. du CNRS. pp. 269-280.</ref><ref name=Ovist/>{{rp|88}}
|-
|{{lang|xce|ENIOROSEI / VTA.TIGINO.{{zwsp}}TIATVMEI / TRECAIAS.{{zwsp}}TOLVGVEI / ARAIANOM.{{zwsp}}COMEIMV / ENIOROSEI.{{zwsp}}EQVOISVIQVE / OGRIS.{{zwsp}}OIOCAS.{{zwsp}}TO.{{zwsp}}GIAS.{{zwsp}}SISTAT.{{zwsp}}LVGVEI.{{zwsp}}TIASO / TOGIAS}}{{efn|1=There are several readings of this inscription, but this reading follows Untermann, who gives the following variants: {{lang|xce|LVGVES}} for {{lang|xce|LVGVEI}} and {{lang|xce|OLOCAS}} for {{lang|xce|OIOCAS}}.<ref name=Untermann/>{{rp|624}}}}
|[[File:Juan Calbre, Peñalba de Villastar K3.3.jpg|150px]]
|Inscribed on a rock. Found at the site of [[Peñalba de Villastar]], in [[Villastar]], [[Aragon]], Spain.<ref name=Untermann/>{{rp|624}}
|[[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]]
|''[[Monumenta Linguarum Hispanicarum|MLH]]'' IV K.3.3
|This inscription, which dates to the 1st century BCE and is among the longest found in the Celtic sanctuary of Peñalba de Villastar, is very obscure in its meaning. No definite translation of this text has been established, but the majority of scholars hold that {{lang|xce|to luguei}} is to be interpreted as a dedication to Lugus (in the [[dative]] singular).<ref name=JordanColera/>{{rp|914}}<ref name=Untermann>{{cite book |last=Untermann |first=Jürgen |title=Monumenta linguarum Hispanicarum IV: Die tartessischen, keltiberischen und lusitanischen Inschriften |date=1997 |publisher=Reichert |location=Wiesbaden }}</ref>{{rp|626}}{{efn|1=Not all agree with this interpretation. Carlos Jordán Cólera interpreted {{lang|xce|luguei}} as "through an oath". [[Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel]] has argued against Jordán Cólera's hypothesis.<ref name=Hofeneder3/>{{rp|131–132}} Untermann's suggested alternate reading, {{lang|xce|lugues}}, would give the name in the nominative plural, but (as Francisco Marco Simón points out) this is at odds with word {{lang|xce|to}} before it, which appears to be in the dative.<ref name=MarcoSimon/>{{rp|214}}}}
|-
|{{lang|txr|l.o.C(o).o.P(o).{{zwsp}}n.i.i.a.r.{{zwsp}}a.P(o).o [...]}}{{efn|1=This article only give the transliteration of this inscription, which is written in the [[Southwest Paleohispanic script]]. The reading given here follows José A. Correa.<ref name=Correa/>{{rp|206}} Untermann gives a different reading.<ref name=Untermann/>{{rp|208}}}}
|[[File:I tarteso.jpg|150px]]
|Inscribed on a stele. Found in the {{ill|Roman necropolis of Fonte Velha|pt|Necrópole romana de Fonte Velha}}, in [[Bensafrim]], [[Lagos, Portugal|Lagos]], [[Portugal]].<ref name=Correa/>{{rp|203–204}}<ref name=Untermann/>{{rp|204}}
|[[Tartessian language|Tartessian]]
|''[[Monumenta Linguarum Hispanicarum|MLH]]'' IV J.1.1
|The beginning of this inscription has been interpreted by José A. Correa as referring to Lugus in the dative plural ({{lang|xtg|Locobo Niirabo}}).<ref name=MarcoSimon/>{{rp|213}}<ref name=Correa>{{cite journal |first=José A. |last=Correa |title=Nota a la inscripción tartesia ''GM'' II |journal=Archivo Español de Arqueología |volume=54 |issue=143 |date=1981 |pages=203–209 |id={{ProQuest|1302116860}} }}</ref> {{ill|Jürgen Zeidler|de}} has expressed scepticism about this reading.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Bryn Mawr Classical Review |title=Review: Celtic from the West |last=Zeider |first=Jürgen |url=https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2011/2011.09.57/#_ftnref6 |date=September 2011 }}</ref>
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|}

A number of dedications to Lugus, dating between the 1st century BCE and 3rd century CE, have been found in Continental Europe.<ref name=Sagredo/>{{rp|190}} This epigraphic data is concentrated in [[Iberia]]; only a small number of inscriptions are known from Gaul, and none are known from Britain or Ireland.<ref name=Tovar/>{{rp|593–594}} A peculiarity of this data is that the singular of Lugus's name is rarely recorded.<ref name=MarcoSimon>{{cite journal |last=Marco Simón |first=Francisco |date=2006 |title=The cult of the ''Lugoves'' in Hispania |journal=Acta Archaeologica |volume=57 |issue=1–3 |pages=209–218 |doi=10.1556/aarch.57.2006.1-3.15 }}</ref>{{rp|215}} There is consensus that a [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]] inscription from Peñalba de Villastar features the singular.<ref name=Ovist/>{{rp|353–354}} A minority interpret the Gaulish-language [[Chamalières tablet]] as invoking singular Lugus.<ref name=Ovist/>{{rp|354}}<ref name=MarcoSimon/>{{rp|214}} The singular is inscribed on a ceramic [[sherd]] from {{ill|Oppidum de l'Ermitage|fr}}, but this is probably a [[theophoric name]] and not a reference to the god Lugus.<ref name=Ovist/>{{rp|353}}<ref name=G-159/> Many Celtic gods are referenced both in the plural and the singular,{{efn|1=Arbois de Jubainville was aware of this and compared Lugus/Lugoves to the pairs Deo Vitiri/Dibus Vitiribus and Deo Mounti/Dis Mountibus known from [[Roman Britain]].<ref name=Ovist/>{{rp|355}} [[Joshua Whatmough]] points out that this feature is common to Gaul as well, where plural dedications to Mercury, [[Epona]], and [[Silvanus (mythology)|Silvanus]] are known.<ref name=Whatmough>{{cite book |title=The Dialects of Ancient Gaul: Prolegomena and Records of the Dialects |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=1970 |last=Whatmough |first=Joshua }}</ref>{{rp|196}}}} but in dedications to Lugus the plural form ("Lugoves" or "Lucoves"{{efn|1=Garrett Olmsted explains the form "Lucoves" as a result of "the tendency to confuse the [[Voice (phonetics)|voice]]d and [[Voicelessness|unvoiced]] series,
particularly ''c'' and ''g'', [...] most frequent in Spain and [[Aquitania]]".<ref name=Olmsted/>{{rp|309}}}}) predominates.<ref name=Olmsted>{{cite book |title=The Gods of the Celts and the Indo-Europeans |last=Olmsted |first=Garrett S. |date=2017 |edition=Revised |url=https://www.academia.edu/38135817 |location=Tazewell, Virginia }}</ref>{{rp|309}}

The nature of the Lugoves, and their relationship to Lugus, has been much debated.<ref name=Sagredo>{{cite journal |title=Los Testimonios Epigraficos de LVG en Hispania |last1=Sagredo |first1=L. |last2=Hernández Guerra |first2=L. |url=https://www.academia.edu/33866674 |journal=Memorias de Historia Antigua |volume=17 |date=1996 |pages=179–202 }}</ref>{{rp|179}} The epigraphic record is equivocal as to the gender of these deities. The epithet {{lang|la|Arquienob(o)}} (attested at San Martín de Liñarán) has masculine gender, whereas the epithets {{lang|la|Arousa(bo)}} (attested on an altar from [[Lugo]]) and possibly {{lang|txr|Niirabo}} indicate the feminine.<ref name=MarcoSimon/>{{rp|215}} [[Henri Gaidoz]] contended that plural deities were minor in the Celtic pantheon, and that therefore Lugus could not have been the chief god of the Celts. Arbois de Jubainville and [[Joseph Vendryes]] argued that the Celts invoked even major gods (such as [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]]) in the plural.<ref name=Ovist/>{{rp|354–355}} Some scholars have tried to explain the multiplicity of the Lugoves through traits of Irish Lugh or Welsh Lleu.<ref name=MarcoSimon/>{{rp|214}}<ref name=deVries/>{{rp|51–52}} [[Marie-Louise Sjoestedt]], for example, pointed out that Lugh was one of triplets.<ref name=Watson/>{{rp|83}} Maier has argued that the obscurity of the nature of the Lugoves limits the value of the epigraphic record as evidence for pan-Celtic Lugus.<ref name=MaierCaesar>{{cite journal |last=Maier |first=Bernhard |title=Is Lug to be Identified with Mercury (''Bell. Gall.'' VI 17, 1)? New Suggestions on an Old Problem |journal=Ériu |volume=47  |date=1996 |pages=127–135 |jstor=30007440 }}</ref>{{rp|128}} Krista Ovist argues against this point.<ref name=Ovist/>{{rp|353–355}}

===Proper names===
The element "lug(u)-" appears frequently in Celtic proper names. In many of these cases, an etymology involving the deity-name Lugus has been proposed.<ref name=Evans/>{{rp|219}}<ref name=Hofeneder3/>{{rp|132}} Celtic personal names with this element include Lug, Lugaunus, Lugugenicus, [[Lugotorix]], Luguadicos, Luguselva, and Lougous.<ref name=Evans/>{{rp|220}} A number of cognate names are known from Irish [[Ogham inscription]]s, for example, Luga, Lugudecca (perhaps, "serving the god Lugus"<ref name=Matasović>{{cite book |first=Ranko |last=Matasović |title=Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic |url=https://archive.org/details/matasovic-etymological-dictionary-of-proto-celtic |volume=9 |location=Leiden / Boston |series=Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series |publisher=Brill |date=2009 }}</ref>{{rp|248}}), Luguqritt (perhaps, "poet like Lugus"<ref name=Zeidler/>{{rp|221}}), and Luguvvecca.<ref name=Evans/>{{rp|220}} Some ethnic names have been connected with Lugus, for example the [[Lugi]] in [[Scotland]]<ref name=Hofeneder3/>{{rp|58}} and the {{ill|Lugones (tribe)|gl|lt=Lugones}} in [[Asturias]].<ref name=Hofeneder3/>{{rp|63}} Place-names connected with Lugus include Lugii, Lougoi, Lougionon, Lugisonis, and Lugnesses.<ref name=Evans/>{{rp|221}} Lucus Augusti (modern-day [[Lugo]]) is the site of a Roman sanctuary with dedications to the Lugoves;<ref name=MarcoSimon/>{{rp|216}} its name may be derived from the deity-name Lugus, though it could simply be Latin for "grove of Augustus".<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/6505899 |title=The Place Names of Ancient Hispania and its Linguistic Layers |last=García Alonso |first=Juan Luis  |journal=Studia Celtica |pages=213–244 |volume=35 |date=2001 }}</ref>{{rp|219}} The name of [[Luguvalium]] (modern-day [[Carlisle]]) is sometimes glossed as "wall of Lugus", but may instead derive from a personal name.<ref name=MaierCaesar/>{{rp|fn 4}}<ref name=Hofeneder3/>{{rp|213}}

[[File:France map Lambert-93 topographic-ancient Roman roads.svg|thumb|[[Lugdunum]] (modern-day [[Lyon]]) at the heart of [[Roman Gaul]]]]

Since Arbois de Jubainville argued for the connection, the place-name "Lugdunum" has frequently been connected etymologically with Lugus. The most famous known by this name is [[Lugdunum]] (modern-day [[Lyon]]) in the region of [[Gallia Lugdunensis]],{{efn|1=The Roman province, which stretched from [[Saône]] to [[Brittany]], took its name from the city.<ref name=Whatmough/>{{rp|483}}}} a [[Roman colony]] and among the most important cities of Roman Gaul.<ref name=Lambert/>{{rp|244–245}} The etymology of this place-name has been the subject of much conjecture. Following Arbois de Jubainville, the most widely held hypothesis analyses the name as {{lang|xtg|Lugus}} + {{lang|xtg|dunum}} ("fort"),{{efn|1=Gaulish {{lang|xtg|dunun}} or {{lang|xtg|dunum}} has the meaning "'citadel, fortified enclosure, mount".<ref name=Delamarre>{{cite book|first=Xavier |last=Delamarre |title=Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise: Une approche linguistique du vieux-celtique continental |date=2003 |location=Paris |edition=2nd |publisher=Éditions Errance }}</ref>{{rp|154–155}}}} that is, "the fortress of Lugus".<ref name=Evans/>{{rp|219–220}} Many other etymologies have been given.<ref name=Whatmough/>{{rp|483–484}} An ancient etymology derives it from a Gaulish word for raven.{{efn|1=This etymology, reported in the 2nd-century text ''[[De fluviis]]'', is given as part of a founding legend of Lugdunum/Lyon: two founders with Gaulish names observe ravens over a hill, and decide to found a city there, deriving its name from {{lang|xtg|lougos}} ("raven") + {{lang|xtg|dunun}} ("hill"). The gloss of {{lang|xtg|dunun}} is correct, but the supposed Gaulish word {{lang|xtg|lougos}} is a ''[[hapax legomenon]]'' and has no clear cognates in other Celtic languages, though Zeidler has proposed a derivation from proto-Indo-European.<ref name=Zeidler>{{cite journal |first=Jürgen |last=Zeidler|title=Review: Maier, Bernhard: ''Die Religion der Kelten''|volume=55 |issue=1 |date=2007 |pages=208–230 |doi=10.1515/ZCPH.2007.208 |journal=Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie }}</ref>{{rp|215–216}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Blom |first=Alderik H. |title=Endlicher's Glossary |journal=Études Celtiques |volume=37 |date=2011 |pages=159–181 |doi=10.3406/ecelt.2011.2332 }}</ref>{{rp|170}}}} Attempts have been made to analyse it as {{lang|xtg|*lugus}} ("luminous" or "clear") + {{lang|xtg|dunum}} ("hill"), bolstered by a medieval etymology which gives the gloss {{lang|la|mons lucidus}} ("shining mountain").<ref name=Hofeneder3>{{cite book |title=Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen |volume=3 |last=Hofeneder |first=Andreas |date=2011 |location=Wien |publisher=Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften |url=https://archive.org/details/9783700169970-gesamt-2 }}</ref>{{rp|131}}<ref name=Evans>{{cite book |last=Evans |first=D. Ellis |title=Gaulish Personal Names: A Study of Some Continental Celtic Formations |location= Oxford |publisher= Clarendon Press |date=1967}}</ref>{{rp|219–220}}

The place-name Lugdunum is attested, in its cognate forms, as the name of as many as twenty-seven locations.<ref name=Hofeneder3/>{{rp|132}}{{efn|1=[[Christian-Joseph Guyonvarc'h]] lists 27 places connected with this name. He classifies 20 as certain, 5 as probable, and 2 as doubtful.<ref name=Hofeneder3/>{{rp|132}} [[Alfred Holder]] gives a shorter list of 16 in his ''Alt-celtischer Sprachschatz''.<ref name=Lambert/>{{rp|244}}}} Apart from Lyon, there is Lugdunum Convenarum (modern-day [[Saint-Bertrand-de-Comminges]]), [[Lugdunum Batavorum]] (near [[Leyden]]), Lugdunum Remorum (modern-day [[Laon]]), two Welsh places named Din Lleu (the order of the elements reversed),<ref name=Lambert>{{Cite book|last=Lambert|first=Pierre-Yves|title=New approaches to Celtic place-names in Ptolemy's Geography|date=2005 |location=Madrid|publisher=Ediciones Clásicas|isbn=978-8478825721|editor-last=de Hoz|editor-first=Javier|pages=215–251|chapter=The place names of Lugdunensis [Λουγδουνησία]|editor-last2=Luján|editor-first2=Eugenio R.|editor-last3=Sims-Williams|editor-first3=Patrick}}</ref>{{rp|244–245}} and two cities of unclear location in [[North East England]] and [[Germania Magna]].<ref name=Hofeneder3/>{{rp|509–510}} The wide range and abundance of these place-names has been used to argue for the importance of Lugus.<ref name=Ovist/>{{rp|355–356}} Whatever the etymology, not all of these place-names must owe themselves a Celtic root. Lugdunum/Lyon was a major city, and other locations may have borrowed the name. Some two-thirds of the cognate place-names are attested only from the 10th century on; we know that Lugdunum Remorum had an older, native name (Bibrax) which was displaced in the 6th century.<ref name=MaierCaesar/>{{rp|129–130}}