Editing Lombardy (section)

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Lombardy}}
Lombardy has a surface area of {{cvt|23861|km2|0}}, and is the fourth-largest [[Regions of Italy|region of Italy]], after [[Sicily]], [[Piedmont]], and [[Sardinia]].<ref name="tuttitalia">{{cite web|url=http://www.tuttitalia.it/regioni/superficie/|title=Regioni d'Italia in ordine di superficie.|archive-date=15 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190215125411/https://www.tuttitalia.it/regioni/superficie/|language=it|access-date=8 February 2024}}</ref> It is bordered by [[Canton Ticino]] and [[Grisons|Canton Grisons]] of [[Switzerland]] to the north, and by the Italian regions of [[Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol]] and [[Veneto]] to the east, [[Emilia-Romagna]] to the south and [[Piedmont]] to the west. 

Lombardy's northern border lies between the [[Valtellina]] and the valleys of the [[Rhine]] and the [[Inn (river)|Inn]]. To the east, [[Lake Garda]] and the [[Mincio]] separate Lombardy from the other Italian regions, as does the Po River in the south, with the exception of the [[province of Mantua]] and [[Oltrepò Pavese]]. The western boundary is formed by the [[Lake Maggiore]] and the [[Ticino (river)|Ticino]] river, except for [[Lomellina]]. Lombardy has three natural zones: mountains, hills and plains—the last being divided into ''Alta'' (high plains) and ''Bassa'' (low plains).

===Soils===
[[File:Passo Manina e Coca.JPG|thumbnail|[[Pizzo Coca]] is the highest peak in the [[Bergamasque Alps|Orobic Alps]] ({{cvt|3050|m|ft}}).]]

The surface area of Lombardy is divided almost equally between the plains (which represent approximately 47% of the territory) and the mountainous areas (which represent 41%). The remaining 12% of the region is hilly.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalgeografia.com/italia/lombardia.htm|title=Globalgeografia|access-date=1 August 2012|language=it}}</ref>

The [[orography]] of Lombardy is characterised by three distinct belts; a northern mountainous belt constituted by the Alpine relief, a central piedmont area of mostly alluvial pebbly soils, and the Lombard section of the [[Padan Plain]] in the south of the region. The main valleys are [[Val Camonica]], [[Val Trompia]], [[Valle Sabbia]], [[Valtellina]], [[Val Seriana]], [[Val Brembana]], [[Valsassina]], and [[Valassina]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.regione.lombardia.it/wps/portal/istituzionale/HP/DettaglioRedazionale/scopri-la-lombardia/territorio-e-popolazione/territorio+e+popolazione|title=Territorio e popolazione|access-date=4 November 2020|language=it}}</ref>

The most important mountainous area is the [[Alps|Alpine]] zone, which includes the [[Lepontine Alps|Lepontine]] and [[Rhaetian Alps]] ({{cvt|4020|m|ft}}), which derive their name, respectively, from the [[Rhaetian people|Raeti]], a population of [[Etruscans|Etruscan]] origin who took refuge in the Central Alps during the Celtic invasion of the Italian peninsula, and from the [[Ligures|Ligurian]] population of the [[Lepontii]], who were settled in this area and then subjugated by the Roman emperor [[Augustus]],<ref name=".montagnadilombardia">{{cite web|url=http://www.montagnadilombardia.com/alpi.html|title=Origine del nome delle Alpi lombarde|access-date=30 March 2013|language=it}}</ref> the [[Bergamasque Alps|Orobic Alps]] ({{cvt|3050|m|ft}}) which derive their name from the [[Orobii]], population of Ligurian or perhaps Celtic origin,<ref name=".montagnadilombardia"/> the [[Ortler Alps]] and the [[Adamello]] massif. It is followed by the Alpine foothills zone [[Prealps]], which are followed by hills that smooth the transition from the mountain to the [[Po Valley]], the main peaks of which are the [[Grigna]] Group ({{cvt|2410|m|ft}}), [[Resegone]] {{cvt|1875|m|ft}}, and [[Presolana]] ({{cvt|2521|m|ft}}).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lombardy Mountains |url=https://peakvisor.com/adm/lombardy.html |access-date=19 June 2022|website=PeakVisor}}</ref>

The plains of Lombardy, which are formed by alluvial deposits, can be divided into the ''Alta''—an upper, permeable ground zone in the north—and the ''Bassa'', a lower zone dotted by the line of ''fontanili'', where spring waters rise from impermeable ground. Inconsistent with the three distinctions above is the small sub-region of [[Oltrepò Pavese]], which is formed by the [[Apennine Mountains|Apennine]] foothills beyond the [[Po (river)|Po]], <ref name="oltresentieri">{{Cite web |title=Oltrepò Pavese, Geologia |url=http://www.oltresentieri.com/Cultura/DaVedere/OltrepoPaveseGeologia.html |access-date=31 January 2024|language=it}}</ref> and [[Lomellina]], an area particularly renowned for its [[rice paddies]].

===Hydrography===
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[[File:Sentiero del Viandante DSC 6340 (14020554463).jpg|thumb|Panoramic view of [[Lake Como]] with the [[Alps]] and [[Bellagio, Lombardy|Bellagio]]]]

The Po marks the southern border of the region for approximately {{cvt|210|km|0}}; its major tributaries are the [[Ticino (river)|Ticino]], which rises in the Val Bedretto in [[Switzerland]] and joins the Po near Pavia,<ref>{{cite book|author1=Rodolfo Soncini-Sessa|author2=Enrico Weber|author3=Francesca Cellina|author4=Francesca Pianosi|title=Integrated and Participatory Water Resources Management - Practice|publisher=Elsevier Science|year=2007|isbn=9780080551425|page=40}}</ref> the [[Olona]], the [[Lambro]], the [[Adda (river)|Adda]], the [[Oglio]] and the [[Mincio]].

The numerous lakes of Lombardy are all of glacial origin and are located in the northern highlands. From west to east, these lakes are: [[Lake Maggiore]], [[Lake Lugano]] (both shared with Switzerland), [[Lake Como]], [[Lake Iseo]], [[Lake Idro]], and [[Lake Garda]] (the largest lake in Italy).<ref>[[Gabriel Faure (writer)|Gabriel Faure]] (1923). ''The Italian Lakes: Maggiore, Como, Orta, Varese, Lugano, Iseo, Garda''</ref> South of the Alps lies a succession of low hills of [[Moraine|morainic]] origin that were formed during the [[Last Glacial Period]],as well as small, barely fertile plateaux with typical heaths and conifer woods. A minor mountainous area, the [[Oltrepò Pavese]] lies in the [[Apennines]] range south of the Po.<ref name="oltresentieri"/>

The [[navigli]] are a system of interconnected [[canal]]s in and around [[Milan]], dating back as far as the Middle Ages.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Florensa |first=Lídia |title=Navigli: guía para visitar los canales de Milán |url=https://www.viajarmilan.com/visitar-los-canales-navigli.php |access-date=7 February 2023|website=Viajar Milán |language=es}}</ref> The system consists of five canals: [[Naviglio Grande]], [[Naviglio Pavese]], [[Naviglio Martesana]], [[Naviglio di Paderno]], and [[Naviglio di Bereguardo]]. The first three were connected through Milan via the ''Fossa Interna'', also known as the Inner Ring. The urban section of the [[Naviglio Martesana]] was covered over at the beginning of the 1930s, together with the entire Inner Ring, thus sounding the death knell for the northeastern canals.

===Alpine passes===
[[File:Splügenpass Nordseite.jpg|thumb|The northern side of the [[Splügen Pass]]]]

The Lombard Alpine valleys are wider than those found in the [[Alps]] in [[Piedmont]] and [[Aosta Valley]]. Most of them are crossed by streams that descend towards the [[Po Valley]], forming rivers that then flow into the Po on the hydrographic left. Thanks to the width of their valleys, the Lombard Alpine passes, although they are at a high altitude, are easily accessible.

The most important international passes found in the Lombard Alps, which connect the region with [[Switzerland]] are the [[Splügen Pass]] ({{cvt|2118|m|ft}}), the [[Maloja Pass]] ({{cvt|1,815|m|ft}}) and the [[Bernina Pass]] ({{cvt|2323|m|ft}}), with the latter two which are located in Swiss territory. The most important national passes are the [[Stelvio Pass]] ({{cvt|2759|m|ft}}) and the [[Tonale Pass]] ({{cvt|1,883|m|ft}}), which connect Lombardy with [[Trentino-Alto Adige]]. These Alpine passes are also of great importance from a historical point of view, given that they have always allowed easy communication between Lombardy and its bordering territories. This has resulted in constant commercial traffic, which contributed to the development of the region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lebellezzeditalia.it/lombardia/lombardia_it/lombardia.htm|title=Lombardia|access-date=27 November 2017|language=it}}</ref>

===Flora and fauna===
[[File:Aree protette della Lombardia.svg|thumb|The protected areas of Lombardy]]

The plains have been intensively cultivated for centuries, and little of the original environment remains. The most common trees are [[elm]], [[alder]], [[sycamore]], [[Populus|poplar]], [[willow]], and [[hornbeam]]. In the area of the foothills lakes, however, [[olive]], [[cypress]]es, and [[larch]]es grow, as do varieties of subtropical flora such as [[magnolia]], [[azalea]] and [[acacia]]. Numerous species of endemic flora in the Prealpine area include some species of [[saxifrage]], [[Allium insubricum|Lombardy garlic]],<ref name = RHSPF>{{cite web | url= https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/Search-Results?form-mode=false&query=allium%20insubricum
| title = RHS Plantfinder - ''Allium insubricum''
| publisher=Royal Horticultural Society | date=1993 | access-date=5 January 2018}}</ref> [[groundsel]], and [[campanula isophylla|bellflowers]].

The highlands are characterised by the typical vegetation of the [[Italian Alps]]. At and below approximately {{cvt|1100|m|ft}}, oaks or broadleaf trees grow; on the mountain slopes between {{cvt|2000|and|2100|m|ft}}, beech trees grow at the lowest limits, with conifer woods higher up. Shrubs such as [[rhododendron]], dwarf pine, and [[juniper]] are native to the summit zone beyond {{cvt|2200|m|ft}}.

Lombardy includes many protected areas. The most important is [[Stelvio National Park]], established in 1935<ref>Law no. 740 on the Constitution of the Stelvio National Park, published in ''Gazzetta Ufficiale del Regno d'Italia'' on June 3, [[1935]]. For the history of this institution see F. Pedrotti, ''Notizie storiche sul Parco Nazionale dello Stelvio'', Temi, Trento 2005.</ref>—the fourth-largest Italian natural park, with typically alpine wildlife such as [[red deer]], [[roe deer]], [[ibex]], [[chamois]], foxes, [[Stoat|ermine]], and [[golden eagle]]s; and the [[Parco naturale lombardo della Valle del Ticino]], which was instituted in 1974 on the Lombard side of the River [[Ticino (river)|Ticino]] to protect one of the last major examples of fluvial forest in northern Italy. There have also been efforts to protect the endangered [[Italian agile frog]]. The [[Parco naturale lombardo della Valle del Ticino]] is the first [[List of regional parks of Italy|Italian regional park]] to be established<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parcoticino.it/istituzionale/p/1_ente-parco.html|title=Parco del Ticino|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100606033455/http://www.parcoticino.it/istituzionale/p/1_ente-parco.html |archive-date=6 June 2010|language=it|access-date=8 February 2024}}</ref> as well as the first European river park.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=1 August 2012|title=Sito ufficiale del Parco Lombardo del Ticino|url=http://www.parcoticino.it/|language=it}}</ref> In 2022, the two parks were included by [[UNESCO]] in the [[World Network of Biosphere Reserves]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Unesco |title=Ticino, Val Grande Verbano |url=https://www.unesco.org/en/mab/ticino-val-grande-verbano |website=unesco.org |publisher=Unesco |access-date=7 July 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

Other parks in the region are the [[Campo dei Fiori di Varese|Campo dei Fiori]] and the [[Cinque Vette Park]], both of which are located in the [[Province of Varese]]. The system of protected areas in Lombardy consists of one national park, 24 regional parks, 65 [[natural reserve]]s<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parks.it/indice/RR/index.php?reg=3|title=Parchi Naturali Regione Lombardia|access-date=8 September 2016|language=it}}</ref> and 30 [[natural monument]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parks.it/indice/PR/index.php?reg=3|title=Parchi Naturali Regione Lombardia|access-date=8 September 2016|language=it}}</ref> In total, protected areas cover more than 27% of the regional territory.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.regione.lombardia.it/wps/portal/istituzionale/HP/DettaglioRedazionale/servizi-e-informazioni/Enti-e-Operatori/ambiente-ed-energia/Parchi-e-aree-protette/sistema-aree-protette-lombarde/sistema-aree-protette-lombarde|title=Il sistema delle Aree Protette lombarde|access-date=9 February 2024|language=it}}</ref>

===Climate===
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| caption2          = An [[olive tree]] on the shores of [[Lake Garda]]. On Lake Garda, there is a "Mediterranean" microclimate which allows the cultivation of olive trees and the production of olive oil.
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Lombardy has a wide array of climates due to variations in elevation, proximity to inland water basins, and large metropolitan areas. The climate is mainly [[humid subtropical climate|humid subtropical]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]] Cfa), especially in the plains, though with significant variations from the Köppen model, especially in the normally long, damp, and cold winters. There is high seasonal temperature variation; in Milan, the average temperature is {{cvt|2.5|°C}} in January and {{cvt|24|°C}} in July. The plains are often subject to fog during the coldest months.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate and average monthly weather in Lombardy, Italy |url=https://weather-and-climate.com:80/average-monthly-Rainfall-Temperature-Sunshine-region-lombardy-it,Italy |access-date=19 June 2022|website=World Weather & Climate Information}}</ref>

In the Alpine foothills with an [[oceanic climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]] Cfb), numerous lakes have a mitigating influence, allowing typically Mediterranean crops (such as olive and [[citrus fruit]]) to grow. In the hills and mountains, the climate is [[Humid continental climate|humid continental]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]] Dfb). In the valleys, it is relatively mild, while it can be severely cold with copious snowfalls above {{cvt|1500|m|ft}}.

Precipitation is more intense in the [[Prealpi Orobiche|Prealpine]] zone, with up to {{cvt|1500|to|2000|mm|1}} annually, but it is also abundant in the plains and alpine zones, with an average of {{cvt|600|to|850|mm|1}} annually. The average annual rainfall is {{cvt|827|mm|in}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Regional Statistical Yearbook: average rainfall, yearly and ten-year average, Lombardy and its provinces.|url=http://www.asr-lombardia.it/ASR/lombardia-e-province/ambiente-e-territorio/clima-e-inquinamento/tavole/100157/|publisher=Regione Lombardia|access-date=21 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923175433/http://www.asr-lombardia.it/ASR/lombardia-e-province/ambiente-e-territorio/clima-e-inquinamento/tavole/100157/|archive-date=23 September 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> Lake Garda, thanks to its size and position, mitigates the climate of its coasts,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.giovannipagano.eu/ipertesti/geografia/lombardia_2/geografia/clima/climalago.htm|title=Il clima dei laghi|access-date=26 April 2021}}</ref> creating a "[[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]]" [[microclimate]] that makes the cultivation of olive trees and the production of [[olive oil]] possible; the so-called "Lombard oil" is also produced in other Lombard lake areas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oliofelice.com/il-lago/no.html|title=Il lago di Garda e il suo microclima|access-date=9 May 2013|language=it|archive-date=27 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131027132134/http://www.oliofelice.com/il-lago/no.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Geology===
[[File:Val Brembana - Laghi Gemelli.jpg|thumb|[[Val Brembana]]]]
[[File:Origgio, campi e boschi.JPG|thumb|[[Po Valley]] in [[Origgio]], in the [[Alto Milanese]]. In the background [[Mount Rosa]]]]

The geological structure of Lombardy derives from the [[orogeny]] of the [[Alps]], resulting from the collision between the [[African Plate|African]] and [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasian]] plates, which generated the Alpine chain from the [[Upper Cretaceous]] to the [[Miocene]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Cesare|last=Perotti|chapter=Assetto tettonico ed evoluzione strutturale delle Prealpi bresciane dalla fine dell'orogenesi varisica ad oggi|title=Atti del "Convegno Una nuova geologia per la Lombardia|location=Milan|year=2008|publisher=LED|isbn=978-8879164528|language=it}}</ref>

The [[Po Valley]], on the other hand, is of more recent origin, formed by the deposit of detrital material on the continental shelf, coming from the erosion caused by surface waters that accompanied the lifting of the Alpine chain, which rose to the west and north of the plain, and of the [[Apennine Mountains|Apennine]] chain to the south, filling the marine gulf that existed in the [[Pliocene]], created by the uplift of the two mountain chains.<ref>{{cite book|first=Michele|last=Adorni|title=Raccontare la terra. 14 itinerari geologici in Emilia-Romagna|publisher=Pendragon|year=2006|isbn=978-8883424984|language=it}}</ref>

===Pollution===
Lombardy is one of the most air-polluted areas of Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Air pollution exposure, cause-specific deaths and hospitalizations in a highly polluted Italian region|year=2016|doi=10.1016/j.envres.2016.03.003|last1=Carugno|first1=Michele|last2=Consonni|first2=Dario|last3=Randi|first3=Giorgia|last4=Catelan|first4=Dolores|last5=Grisotto|first5=Laura|last6=Bertazzi|first6=Pier Alberto|last7=Biggeri|first7=Annibale|last8=Baccini|first8=Michela|journal=Environmental Research|volume=147|pages=415–424|pmid=26969808|bibcode=2016ER....147..415C|s2cid=22664973 |doi-access=free|hdl=2434/504866|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Because of high levels of industrialisation and the lack of wind due to the region being enclosed between mountain ranges, air pollution remains a severe problem in Lombardy and northern Italy.

In March 2019, the [[European Space Agency]] (ESA)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2019/05/Nitrogen_dioxide_over_northern_Italy|title=Nitrogen dioxide over northern Italy|access-date=28 January 2021}}</ref> published images taken from its satellites, showing a large stain composed of [[nitrogen dioxide]] and fine particles above the Po Valley area. Lombardy is the geographic and economic centre of this area, with more than 10 million residents and the highest GRP per inhabitant in the country. Most of its major cities are located in the Po River  basin, which crosses the region. The stain analysed by ESA is the main reason Po Valley air pollution levels are so high. Milan also has high levels of [[ozone]] and [[nitrogen oxides]], which are mainly produced by diesel and petrol engines in cars.

According to the [[Chicago Energy Policy Institute]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://aqli.epic.uchicago.edu/news/air-pollution-hotspots-in-europe/|title=Air pollution hotspots in Europe|access-date=29 January 2021}}</ref> which has recently developed the [[Air Quality Life Index]] (AQLI), Po Valley air pollution reduces life expectancy by approximately six months. Air pollution in the Po Valley is linked to livestock and factories. The use of [[NPK fertilizer]]s, composed of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, along with manure emissions from intensive breeding and high levels of nitrogen dioxide released by diesel and petrol engines are all contributing factors to pollution in Northern Italy. Lombardy also produces vast amounts of animal waste, a significant contributor to pollution. Lombardy produces more than 40% of Italy's milk, and over half of the Italian pig production is located in the Po Valley.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://phys.org/news/2019-02-italy-polluted-po-valley-gasps.html|title=Italy's polluted Po Valley gasps for fresh air|access-date=31 January 2021}}</ref>

According to research published in [[The Lancet Planetary Health]],<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Premature mortality due to air pollution in European cities: a health impact assessment|year=2021 |pmid=33482109 |last1=Khomenko |first1=S. |last2=Cirach |first2=M. |last3=Pereira-Barboza |first3=E. |last4=Mueller |first4=N. |last5=Barrera-Gómez |first5=J. |last6=Rojas-Rueda |first6=D. |last7=De Hoogh |first7=K. |last8=Hoek |first8=G. |last9=Nieuwenhuijsen |first9=M. |journal=The Lancet. Planetary Health |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=e121–e134 |doi=10.1016/S2542-5196(20)30272-2 |s2cid=231687871 |doi-access=free |hdl=10230/53387 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> in January 2021, Brescia and Bergamo had the highest death rate from [[fine particulate matter]] (PM<sub>2.5</sub>) in Europe.

The data show that many cities in Lombardy and the Po Valley suffer from the most serious impact of poor air quality in Europe, primarily the metropolitan area of Milan, which ranks 13th in terms of fine particulate impact, with an annual premature death rate of 3,967, accounting for approximately 9% of the total.