Editing Lollardy (section)

==Beliefs==
[[File:lollardmap.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A map of Lollardy's influence. Areas of Lollardy's influence before the death of [[Richard II of England|Richard II]] are in green. Areas where Lollardy spread in the 15th century are in red.]]

According to scholar Margaret Aston, as Wycliffe's academic theology percolated to the masses, it changed measureably, some parts strengthening and others weakening.<ref name="aston"/>  Historian John Thomson is paraphrased "Rather than a specific creed of well thought out theological doctrine, Lollard beliefs are more aptly described as a set of consistent attitudes."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Freeman |first1=Cameron |title=Who were the post-Wycliffe Lollards, what did they practice and what became of their movement? |url=https://cameronfreeman.com/socio-cultural-anthropology/anthropology-religion-christian-tradition/post-wycliffe-lollards-practice-movement/}}</ref>

=== Eucharist ===
With regard to the [[Eucharist]], Lollards such as [[John Wycliffe]], [[The Testimony of William Thorpe|William Thorpe]] and [[John Oldcastle]] taught a view of the mystical real presence of Christ in Holy Communion known as "[[consubstantiation]]" but did not accept the formulation of [[transubstantiation]], which the Roman Catholic Church required the faithful not to deny.<ref name="Walker2013">{{cite book|last=Walker|first=Greg|title=Reading Literature Historically: Drama and Poetry from Chaucer to the Reformation|date=6 February 2013|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|language=en |isbn=9780748681037|page=152}}</ref><ref name="IIHornbeck2010">{{cite book|last=Hornbeck|first=J. Patrick |title=What is a lollard?: dissent and belief in late medieval England|date=10 September 2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=en|isbn=9780199589043|page=72}}</ref> Wycliffite teachings on the Eucharist were declared heresy at the [[Earthquake Synod|Blackfriars Council]] of 1382, and later by the Pope and the [[Council of Constance]].

"[[The Plowman's Tale]]", a 16th-century Lollard poem, argues that theological debate about orthodox doctrine is less important than the [[Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist|Real Presence]]:<ref name=barr>{{Cite book| publisher = Boydell & Brewer| isbn = 978-0-85991-419-2| last = Barr| first = Helen| title = Signes and Sothe: Language in the Piers Plowman Tradition| date = 1994}}</ref>

{{poemquote|
I say sothe thorowe trewe rede
His flesh and blode, through his mastry
Is there/ in the forme of brede
Howe it is there/ it nedeth not stryve
Whether it be subgette or accydent
But as Christ was/ when he was on-lyve
So is he there verament.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last= McCarl |editor-first= Mary Rhinelander |date= 1997 |title= The Plowman's Tale: The c. 1532 and 1606 Editions of a Spurious Canterbury Tale |location= New York |publisher= Garland |pages= 21–40|quote= On the dating of "The Plowman's Tale", see Andrew N. Warn, "The Genesis of The Plowman's Tale, Yearbook of English Studies 2" 1972}}</ref>

[In modern English:]
I say the truth through true understanding: 
His flesh and blood, through his subtle works, 
Is there in the form of bread. 
In what manner it is present need not be debated, 
Whether as subject or [[Accident (philosophy)|accident]], 
But as Christ was when he was alive, 
So He is truly there.<ref>{{cite book|last= Hardwick |first=Paul |date= 2011|title= English Medieval Misericords: The Margins of Meaning |location= Woodbridge, UK |publisher= The Boydell Press |isbn= 9781843836599|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=UjODkjR1aKgC&q=Wycliffe+I+say+sothe+thorowe+trewe+rede&pg=PA59 |page=60}}</ref>
}}

[[William Sawtry]], a priest, was reportedly burned in 1401 for his preaching that "bread remains in the same nature as before" after [[consecration]] by a priest. A suspect in 1517 summed up the Lollards' position: "Summe folys cummyn to churche thynckyng to see the good Lorde – what shulde they see there but bredde and wyne?"{{sfn|Hudson|1988|p=285}}<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Saint David's Univ. College| isbn = 978-0-905285-31-3| last = Crossley-Holland| first = Nicole| title = Eternal Values in Mediaeval Life| date = 1 January 1991}}</ref>

In the mid 15th century a priest named Richard Wyche was accused of false doctrine that corrupted the faith of Northumbrians, and left a letter detailing his version of the inquisitional proceedings, where a succession of theologians and others attempted to convince him of the Catholic position or to find some compromise wording that involved him not denying transubstantiation.<ref name=wyche>{{cite journal |last1=Wyche |first1=Richard |last2=Bradley |first2=Christopher G. |title=The Letter of Richard Wyche : An Interrogation Narrative |journal=Publications of the Modern Language Association of America |date=May 2012 |volume=127 |issue=3 |pages=626–642 |doi=10.1632/pmla.2012.127.3.626}}</ref> When asked about transubstantiation during his questioning, he repeated only his belief in the Real Presence.{{sfn|Hudson|1988|p=284}} When asked if the host was still bread even after consecration, he answered only: "I believe that the host is the real body of Christ in the form of bread". Throughout his questioning he insisted that he was "not bound to believe otherwise than Holy Scripture says" and resorted to various loopholes. Following the questioning, he claimed he had been allowed to swear an oath on his heart;<ref name=wyche/> later his inquisitors denied this, saying he had sworn a different oath, which would have actually freed him; his denial of having taken that oath was taken as a re-canting by the bishop, preventing his attempted appeal to the Pope, so he was excommunicated, defrocked, imprisoned and eventually executed.{{sfn|Hudson|1988|p=284}}<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Wipf and Stock Publishers| isbn = 978-1-59752-973-0| last = Stone| first = Darwell| title = A History of the Doctrine of the Holy Eucharist| date = 1 October 2007}}</ref>

Lollard teachings on the Eucharist are attested to in numerous primary source documents. It is the fourth of the ''[[The Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards|Twelve Conclusions]]'' and the first of the ''[[Sixteen Points on which the Bishops accuse Lollards]]''. It is discussed in ''[[The Testimony of William Thorpe]]'', the ''[[Apology for Lollard Doctrines]]'',<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Wycliffe |first1=John |last2=Camden Society (Great Britain) |last3=Todd |first3=James Henthorn |date=1842 |title=An Apology for Lollard Doctrines |url=https://archive.org/details/anapologyforloll00wycluoft |location=London |publisher=Printed for the Camden Society, by J. B. Nichols |access-date=6 July 2018}}</ref> ''[[Jack Upland]]'', and ''[[Opus Arduum]]''.{{sfn|Hudson|1988|pp=285–286}}

=== Denial of sacraments and sacramentals ===
{{dubious|date=October 2024}}
The Lollards did not believe that the church practices of [[baptism]] and [[Sacrament of Penance|confession]] were necessary for [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]].

Believing in a [[universal priesthood]], the Lollards challenged the Church's authority to invest or to deny the divine authority to make a man a priest. Denying any special status to the priesthood, Lollards thought [[Confession (religion)|confession]] to a priest was unnecessary since according to them priests did not have the ability to forgive sins. However, while it is beneficial to confess to a good priest, it is perilous to confess to a bad one.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Purvey |first1=John |title=Remonstrance against Romish corruptions in the Church : addressed to the people and parliament of England in 1395, 18 Ric. II., now for the first time published |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924088956754/page/n47/mode/2up |publisher=London : Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans |date=1851}}</ref>{{rp|Art.9}} Lollards challenged the practice of [[clerical celibacy]] and believed priests should not hold [[Lords Spiritual|government positions]] as such temporal matters would likely interfere with their spiritual mission.

They considered praying to saints and [[Iconoclasm|honouring of their images]] to be a form of idolatry. Oaths, fasting and prayers for the dead were thought to have no [[Wycliffe's Bible|scriptural basis]]. They had a poor opinion of the trappings of the Catholic Church, including holy water, bells, organs, and church buildings. They rejected the value of [[Indulgence#Early and medieval beliefs|papal pardons]].<ref name=OER/>

=== The Twelve Conclusions ===
One group of Lollards petitioned Parliament with the [[Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards]] by posting them on the doors of Westminster Hall in February 1395. While by no means a central statement of belief of the Lollards, the Twelve Conclusions reveal certain basic Lollard ideas.

* The first Conclusion rejects the acquisition of temporal wealth by Church leaders, as accumulating wealth leads them away from religious concerns and towards greed.
*The fourth Conclusion deals with the Lollard view that the [[Sacrament]] of the Eucharist is a debatable doctrine that is not clearly defined in the Bible. Whether the bread remains bread or becomes the literal body of Christ is not specified uniformly in the gospels.{{Sfn | Hudson | 1988 | p = 306}}
* The sixth Conclusion states that officials of the Church should not concern themselves with secular matters when they hold a position of power within the Church, since this constitutes a conflict of interest between matters of the spirit and matters of the State.
* The eighth Conclusion points out the ludicrousness, in the minds of Lollards, of the reverence that is directed toward images of Christ's suffering. "If the cross of Christ, the nails, spear, and crown of thorns are to be honoured, then why not honour Judas's lips, if only they could be found?"{{Sfn | Hudson | 1988 | p = 306}}
* The eleventh Conclusion was that female religious vows were unsafe, given that unmarried females could not contain their lust and would fall pregnant and commit abortion.
* Expensive church artwork was seen as an excess. They believed effort should be placed on helping the needy and preaching rather than working on expensive decorations. [[Icon]]s were also seen as dangerous since many seemed to be worshipping the icons more fervently than they worshipped God.

Later, an expanded version the "Thirty Seven Conclusions" or "Remonstrances" was submitted in the late 1390s; the author is not known.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Purvey |first1=John |title=Remonstrance against Romish corruptions in the Church : addressed to the people and parliament of England in 1395, 18 Ric. II., now for the first time published |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924088956754/page/n13/mode/2up |publisher=London : Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans |date=1851}}</ref>

===Vernacular scripture===
Lollardy was a religion of [[Bible translations in the Middle Ages|vernacular scripture]].<ref name=OER>{{Cite encyclopedia| isbn = 978-0-19-506493-3| last = Aston| first = Margaret| title = Lollardy - Oxford Reference| chapter = Lollardy| encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of the Reformation| access-date = 31 May 2017| date = 1996| chapter-url = http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195064933.001.0001/acref-9780195064933-e-0830}}{{subscription required|via=[[OUP]]}}</ref> Lollards opposed many practices of the Catholic church. [[Anne Hudson (literary historian)|Anne Hudson]] has written that a form of ''[[sola scriptura]]'' underpinned Wycliffe's beliefs, but distinguished it from the more radical ideology that anything not permitted by scripture is forbidden. Instead, Hudson notes that Wycliffe's ''sola scriptura'' held the [[Bible]] to be "the only valid source of doctrine and the only pertinent measure of legitimacy."{{sfn|Hudson|1988|p=280}}

Later Lollards believed that people deserved access to a copy of their own Bible. Many attempted to distribute English copies. Due to the lack of a printing press and low literacy levels, it was difficult to accomplish this goal.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Bucholz |first1=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fvm4DwAAQBAJ |title=Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History |last2=Key |first2=Newton |date=2019-10-23 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-53221-8 |language=en}}</ref>

However, a notable feature of some Lollard inquisitions was the common claim of illiteracy, or vision impairment, as a defence against the suspicion of Lollardy raised by possession of suspect vernacular texts.<ref name=aston />{{rp|495}}

Despite popular beliefs to the contrary: 
{{quote|"There is no doubt that the Lollards (as Wycliffe's followers were called) were persecuted, but it does not appear that the possession, use, or manufacture of an English version of the Bible was one of the charges specially urged against them. The subject is not raised in the extant list of articles upon which the suspected were to be questioned."|Fredrick Kenyon, ''Our Bible and the ancient manuscripts'', 1903<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kenyon |first1=Frederic G. (Frederic George) |title=Our Bible and the ancient manuscripts [microform] ; being a history of the text and its translations |date=1903 |publisher=London, New York [etc.] : Eyre and Spottiswoode |url=https://archive.org/details/MN41613ucmf_0/page/n277/mode/2up}}</ref>{{rp|206}} }}

=== Catholic practices ===
Lollards did not observe [[fasting and abstinence in the Catholic Church]]. In [[heresy]] proceedings against [[Margery Baxter]] it was presented as evidence that a servant girl found [[bacon]] in a pot of [[oatmeal]] on the first Saturday of [[Lent]]. Non-observance of dietary restrictions was used as evidence of heresy in another [[Norfolk]] case against Thomas Mone, where it was alleged that a piglet was eaten for [[Easter]] dinner when eating meat was forbidden.<ref>{{cite book |last=Woolgar |first=C. M. |publisher=Yale University Press |title=The Culture of Food in England, 1200–1500 |date=2016 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zeKoCwAAQBAJ |page=29|isbn=9780300181913 }}</ref>

Special vows were considered to be in conflict with the divine order established by Christ and were regarded as [[Anathema#Catholicism|anathema]].<ref>{{Cite journal| last = Gasse| first = Roseanne| title = Margery Kempe and Lollardy| journal = Magistra| access-date = 30 May 2017| date = 1 January 1996| url = https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-894819351.html| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170830102446/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-894819351.html| url-status = dead| archive-date = 30 August 2017}}</ref>

Lollards had a tendency toward [[iconoclasm]].{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

Some Lollards believed work was permissible on Sundays.<ref name=aston />

=== Foxe ===
Sixteenth-century [[martyrologist]] [[John Foxe]] reduced the main beliefs of Lollardy to four (none of which correspond exactly to the [[five solae]] alleged of Protestantism), marginalizing the Wycliffite doctrine of ''[[Dominion (political theory)|dominium]]'', claiming they were:

* opposition to pilgrimages,
* opposition to saint worship, 
* denial of the doctrine of [[transubstantiation]] (e.g. in favour of [[consubstantiation]]), and
* a demand for [[Bible translations into English|English translation of the Scriptures]].<ref name=walker>{{Cite journal| last = Walker| first = Greg| title = Heretical Sects in Pre-Reformation England| journal = History Today| access-date = 30 May 2017| date = 1 May 1993| url = https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-13822945.html| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170830104151/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-13822945.html| url-status = dead| archive-date = 30 August 2017}}</ref>