Editing Lituus (section)

==Music instrument==
[[File:Lituus instrument 001.png|thumb|75px|Etrusco-Roman ''lituus'' (instrument)]]

===Antiquity===
The ancient ''lituus'' was an [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] [[Pitch (music)|high-pitched]] [[brass instrument]], which was straight but bent at the end, in the shape of a letter J, similar to the Gallic [[carnyx]]. It was later used by the Romans, especially for processional music and as a signalling horn in the army. For the Roman military it may have been particular to the cavalry, and both the Etruscan and Roman versions were always used in pairs, like the prehistoric [[lur]]er. Unlike the Roman ''litui'', the Etruscan instruments had detachable mouthpieces and in general appear to have been longer.<ref>Sibyl Marcuse, "Lituus", ''Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary'', corrected edition, The Norton Library N758 (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1975): 312 {{ISBN|0-393-00758-8}}; Anthony Baines, ''Brass Instruments: Their History and Development'' (London: Faber and Faber; New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1976): 58, 60, 65. {{ISBN|0-684-15229-0}}.</ref> The name ''lituus'' is Latin, thought to have been derived from an Etruscan cultic word describing a soothsayer's wand modelled on a shepherd's crook and associated with sacrifice and favourable omens. Earlier Roman and Etruscan depictions show the instrument used in processions, especially funeral processions. Players of the lituus were called ''liticines'', though the name of the instrument appears to have been loosely used (by poets, not likely by soldiers) to describe other military brass instruments, such as the ''[[Roman tuba|tuba]]'' or the ''[[buccina]]''.<ref>James W. McKinnon, "Lituus", ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition, edited by [[Stanley Sadie]] and [[John Tyrrell (musicologist)|John Tyrrell]] (London: Macmillan Publishers, 2001); Anthony Baines, ''Brass Instruments: Their History and Development'' (London: Faber and Faber; New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1976): 65–66. {{ISBN|0-684-15229-0}}.</ref> In 17th-century Germany a variant of the bent ancient ''lituus'' was still used as a signalling horn by [[Watchman (law enforcement)|nightwatchmen]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2015}}

===Medieval period===
{{main article|Medieval lituus}}
From the end of the 10th through the 13th centuries, chroniclers of the [[Crusades]] used the word ''lituus'' vaguely—along with the Classical Latin names for other Roman military Trumpets and horns, such as the ''[[Roman tuba|tuba]]'', ''[[Cornu (horn)|cornu]]'', and ''[[buccina]]'' and the more up-to-date French term ''trompe''—to describe various instruments employed in the Christian armies. However, it is impossible to determine just what sort of instrument might have been meant, and it is unlikely their litui were the same as the Etrusco-Roman instrument.<ref>John Wallace and Alexander McGrattan, ''The Trumpet'' (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2012): 73.</ref>

In the early 15th century, [[Jean de Gerson]] listed the lituus among those [[string instrument]]s that were sounded by beating or striking, either with the fingernails, a plectrum, or a stick. Other instruments Gerson names in this category are the ''[[Harp|cythara]]'', ''[[gittern|guiterna]]'', ''[[Psalterium (instrument)|psalterium]]'', ''timpanum'', and ''campanula''.<ref>Christopher Page, "Early 15th-Century Instruments in Jean de Gerson's 'Tractatus de Canticis'", ''Early Music'' 6, no. 3 (July 1978): 339–49. Citation on 344.</ref>

===Modern era===
Throughout the postclassical era the name ''lituus'' continued to be used when discussing ancient and Biblical instruments, but with reference to contemporary musical practice in the Renaissance it usually referred to "bent horns" made of wood, particularly the [[crumhorn]] and the [[cornett]].<ref>Don Michael Randel, "Lituus", ''The Harvard Dictionary of Music'', fourth edition (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003).  {{ISBN|978-0674011632}}</ref> The crumhorn was especially associated with the lituus because of the similarity of its shape. The equation of the crumhorn with the lituus was especially strong among German writers.<ref>Kenton Terry Meyer, "The Crumhorn", PhD thesis (Iowa City: University of Iowa, 1981): 10, 20.</ref> A 1585 English translation of [[Hadrianus Junius]]'s ''Nomenclator'' defines ''lituus'' as "a writhen or crooked trumpet winding in and out; a shaulme" (i.e., [[shawm]]), but a polyglot edition of the same book published in 1606 demonstrates how differently the term might have been understood in various languages at that time: German ''Schalmey'', ''Krumme Trommeten'', ''Krumhorn''; Dutch ''Schalmeye''; French ''Claron, ou cleron''; Italian ''Trombetta bastarda''; Spanish ''Trompeta curua, ò bastarda''.<ref>Kenton Terry Meyer, "The Crumhorn", PhD thesis (Iowa City: University of Iowa, 1981): 21–22.</ref> The early Baroque composer and author [[Michael Praetorius]] used the word as a Latin equivalent of the German "Schallmeye" (shawm) or for the "Krumbhoerner" ([[crumhorn]]s)—in the latter case also offering the Italian translations ''storti'', and ''cornamuti torti''.<ref>Michael Praetorius, ''Syntagmatis Musici, Tomus Secundus: De Organographia'' (Wolffenbüttel: Elias Holwein, 1619): 3, 40.</ref>

A more particular term, ''lituus alpinus'', was used in 1555 by the Swiss naturalist [[Conrad Gessner]] when he published the earliest detailed description of the [[Alphorn]]: "nearly eleven feet long, made from two pieces of wood slightly curved and hollowed out, fitted together and skillfully bound with [[Salix viminalis|osiers]]".<ref>"longum ferè ad pedes undecim, duobus lignis modicè incuruis & excauatis compactum, & uiminibus scitè obligatum" ([[Conrad Gessner]], ''[https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb11067616?page=2 De raris et admirandis herbis qvae sive qvod noctv luceant, siue alias ob causas, lunariae nominantur, commentariolus : & obiter de alijs etiam rebus quæ in tenebris lucent : inferunter & icones quedam herbarum nove : eivsdem descriptio Montis Fracti, siue Montis Pilati, iuxta Lucernam in Heluetia : his accedvnt Io. Dv Chovl G.F. Lugdunensis, Pilati Montis in Gallia descriptio : Io Rhellicani Stockhornias, qua Stockhornus mons altissimus in Bernensium Heluetiorum agro, versibus heroicis describitur]''. Tigvri [Zurich]: Apud Andream Gesnerum F. & Iacobvm Gesnerum, frates, 1555): 52.</ref>

A study made of Swedish dictionaries found that during the seventeenth century ''lituus'' was variously translated as ''sinka'' (= German ''Zink'', cornett), ''krumhorn'', ''krum trumeta'' (curved trumpet), ''[[Clarion (instrument)|claret]]'', or ''horn''.<ref>Kenton Terry Meyer, "The Crumhorn", PhD thesis (Iowa City: University of Iowa, 1981): 20–21, citing Stig Walin, "Musikinstrumenttermer i äldre svenska lexikon", ''Svensk tidskrift för musikforskning'' 30 (1948): 5–40; 31 (1949), 5–82.</ref>

In the eighteenth century the word once again came to describe contemporary brass instruments, such as in a 1706 inventory from the [[Osek (Teplice District)|Ossegg]] monastery in Bohemia, which equates it with the hunting horn: "litui vulgo Waldhörner duo ex tono G".<ref>James W. McKinnon, "Lituus", ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition, edited by [[Stanley Sadie]] and [[John Tyrrell (musicologist)|John Tyrrell]] (London: Macmillan Publishers, 2001); Sibyl Marcuse, "Lituus", ''Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary'', corrected edition, The Norton Library N758 (New York: W. W. Norton & Company Inc., 1975. {{ISBN|0-393-00758-8}}.</ref> Nevertheless, in 1732 [[Johann Gottfried Walther]] referred back to Renaissance and Medieval definitions, defining ''lituus'' as "a cornett, formerly it also signified a shawm or, in Italian ''tubam curvam'', a HeerHorn".<ref>Johann Gottfried Walther, ''Musicalisches Lexicon Oder Musicalische Bibliothec: Darinnen nicht allein Die Musici, welche so wol in alten als neuern Zeiten, ... durch Theorie und Praxis sich hervor gethan, ... angeführet, Sondern auch Die in Griechischer, Lateinischer, Italiänischer und Frantzösischer Sprache gebräuchliche Musicalische Kunst- oder sonst dahin gehörige Wörter, ... vorgetragen und erkläret'' (Leipzig: Wolffgang Deer, 1732): 367.</ref> (''Heerhorn'' or ''Herhorn'' was a Middle High German name for a metal, slightly curved military signal horn, approximately five feet long, played with the bell turned upward.)<ref>Sibyl Marcuse, "Heerhorn", "Herhorn", ''Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary'', corrected edition, The Norton Library N758 (New York: W. W. Norton & Company Inc., 1975. {{ISBN|0-393-00758-8}}.</ref> In 1738, the well-known horn player [[Anton Joseph Hampel]] served as a godfather at the baptism of a daughter of the renowned Dresden lutenist [[Silvius Leopold Weiss]]. In the baptismal register he was described as "Lituista Regius"—"royal lituus player".<ref>[[Hans-Joachim Schulze]], "''O Jesu Christ, meins Lebens Licht'': On the Transmission of a Bach Source and the Riddle of Its Origin", in ''A Bach Tribute: Essays in Honor of William H. Scheide'', edited by Paul Brainard and Ray Robinson, 209–20 (Kassel and New York: Bärenreiter; Chapel Hill: Hinshaw Music, 1993): 214. {{ISBN|978-0-937276-12-9}}.</ref> In the second half of the 18th century the lituus was described in one source as a Latin name for the [[trumpet]] or [[Natural horn|horn]].<ref>Ignaz Franz Xaver Kürzinger, ''Getreuer Unterricht zum Singen mit Manieren, und die Violin zu spielen'' (Augsburg: Johann Jacob Lotter, 1763): 84.</ref>

A number of musical compositions from the Baroque era specify an instrument by the Latin name ''lituus'', including [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach's]] [[motet]] [[O Jesu Christ, meins Lebens Licht, BWV 118|''O Jesu Christ, meins Lebens Licht'' (BWV 118)]], a partita attributed to [[Jan Josef Ignác Brentner]], as well as several masses and concertos by [[Johann Valentin Rathgeber]]. Scientists from [[Edinburgh University]] tried to recreate the lituus used by Bach in May 2009, in the form of a long wooden trumpet, assuming the word did not refer to a modern horn but to an instrument that had been out of use for 300 years.<ref>Pallab Ghosh, "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/8075223.stm 'Lost' Music Instrument Recreated]", BBC News (30 May 2009; accessed 30 May 2009).</ref><ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/I5aHfVk_71c Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20120430162724/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I5aHfVk_71c Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web |author=Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I5aHfVk_71c |title=Scientists Recreate Bachs Forgotten Horn |accessdate=1 June 2009 |date=1 June 2009 |publisher=YouTube |work=EPSRCvideo}}{{cbignore}}</ref>