Editing Leo V the Armenian (section)

== Reign ==
[[File:MadridSkylitzesFol12vDetail.jpg|thumb|260px|Proclamation of Leo as emperor.]]
Recalled by [[Michael I Rangabe|Michael I Rhangabe]] in 811, Leo became governor of the [[Anatolic theme|Anatolic Theme]] and conducted himself well in a war against the [[Arab]]s in 812, defeating the forces of the Cilician ''[[thughur]]'' under [[Thabit ibn Nasr]]. Leo survived the [[Battle of Versinikia]] in 813 by abandoning the battlefield, but nevertheless took advantage of this defeat to force the abdication of Michael I in his favor on 11 July 813. It was at this time that people assembled at the tomb of [[Constantine V]], an emperor who was victorious against the Bulgars, and cried out to it: "Arise and help the state which is perishing!"<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Auzépy |first=Marie-France |title=The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |chapter=State of Emergency (700–850)}}</ref>{{Rp|page=257}}

In a diplomatic move, Leo wrote a letter to [[Patriarch Nicephorus I of Constantinople|Patriarch Nikephoros]] in order to reassure him of his orthodoxy (Nikephoros being obviously afraid of a possible [[Iconoclasm (Byzantine)|iconoclast]] revival).<ref>[[Theophanes the Confessor]], Χρονογραφία (Chronicle), 502. 19–22</ref> A further step in preventing future usurpations was the castration of Michael I's sons.<ref>Scriptor Incertus, 341. 10–11</ref> One month later, during his entrance to the Palace quarter, he kneeled before the [[icon]] of [[Christ]] at the [[Chalke Gate]], which was erected by Empress [[Irene of Athens|Irene]].<ref>[[Theophanes Continuatus]], 18. 19–21</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Brubaker |first=Leslie |title=Byzantium in the iconoclast era c. 680–850: a history |last2=Haldon |first2=John |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-43093-7 |location=Cambridge}}</ref>{{RP|page=131}}

Leo inherited a precarious situation. Within a week of his coronation, Khan [[Krum of Bulgaria]] blockaded both [[Adrianople]] and [[Constantinople]] by land. He agreed to negotiate in person with Krum but used the opportunity to attempt to have him assassinated. The stratagem failed, enraging Krum who sacked the suburbs of Constantinople and towns in southern [[Thrace]]. However, he abandoned his [[Siege of Constantinople (813)|siege of the capital]], and withdrew to [[Siege of Adrianople (813)|capture]] and depopulate Adrianople. With this moment of respite, Leo divorced his allegedly adulterous wife and married the daughter of the ''[[patrikios]]'' [[Arsaber]], the well-regarded Armenian noblewoman [[Theodosia (wife of Leo V)|Theodosia]], crowning her first son, the ten-year-old [[Symbatios the Armenian|Symbatios]], co-emperor, and renaming him Constantine, recalling the militarily successful [[Iconoclasm|iconoclast]] emperors of the eighth century, [[Leo III the Isaurian]] and [[Constantine V]]. In 814, Krum sacked [[Arcadiopolis]] and other Thracian towns, and planned a full-scale siege of [[Constantinople]], but died of a [[stroke]] before he could begin, causing the Bulgar threat to finally recede.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=|pages=431-432}}<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=272}}

=== The beginning of the second iconoclasm ===
[[File:Patriarch Theodotos Melissenos propagates Iconoclasm.jpg|thumb|Patriarch [[Theodotus I of Constantinople|Theodotus I]] reinstates iconoclasm at the [[Council of Constantinople (815)|Council of Constantinople]].]]The motives for the second iconoclasm appear to be more straightforward than in the first, and are much less contested among scholars. Like Emperor [[Philippicus|Philippikos]]' ({{Reign|711|713}}) re-introduction of [[monothelitism]] in 711, Leo's adoption of iconoclasm was a strategy for imperial survival and a means of bolstering imperial authority (although it is noted that pragmatism and genuine conviction are not mutually exclusive, i.e., Leo may have had genuinely iconoclastic convictions). And just as Patriarch [[Nikephoros I of Constantinople|Nikephoros I]] and Theodore the Stoudite opposed imperial intervention in dogmatic matters, so too did [[Maximus the Confessor|Maximos the Confessor]] oppose the monothelite policies of [[Constans II]] ({{Reign|641|688}}). In turn, Constans and Leo appealed to the legacy of [[Constantine the Great]] in convoking the [[First Council of Nicaea]], and believed their actions were only a re-assertion of this legitimate imperial authority in spiritual matters.<ref name=":2" />{{RP|pages=367-368}}

Leo informed his advisers of his opinion that recent emperors had suffered defeat because of their [[Iconodulism|veneration of icons]] (or ''iconodulia''), unlike the iconoclast emperors Leo III and Constantine V who were victorious against the Arabs and Bulgars. He appointed a theological commission led by the monk [[John VII of Constantinople|John the Grammarian]] (later [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Patriarch of Constantinople]] John VII). When called to comment, the iconodule Patriarch [[Nikephoros I of Constantinople]] rejected the report and argued that the [[biblical]] passages quoted as condemning iconodulia were not dealing with "holy images" but with idols. Leo asked the commission to produce a more carefully researched document, and enlisted the help of a major bishop, [[Antony I of Constantinople|Antony]], later Patriarch of Constantinople from 821. In the second document, the commission stated that, since the military blamed their defeats by the Bulgars on iconodulia, a compromise must be sought in which only images hanging low in churches (which are therefore able to be venerated) would be removed, but Nikephoros resisted again. Leo asked Nikephoros to provide biblical proof-texts for iconodulia but he appealed instead to the notion of the long-standing tradition of iconodulia. Leo then proposed a debate with the commission, but Nikephoros refused to participate. While Leo was attempting to present himself as a just arbitrator of a debate, rather than as a tyrant imposing iconoclasm for secular reasons (as was the characterisation of many iconodule accounts), debate among clergy only resulted in a stalemate. Some soldiers of the imperial guard threw stones and mud at the [[icon]] of [[Christ]] over the Chalke Gate, shouting iconoclastic slogans, prompting Leo to have it replaced with a [[Christian cross|cross]].<ref name=":2" />{{RP|page=|pages=131, 369–370}}<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=432|pages=}}

This caused alarm among the clergy who met in the patriarchal palace on Christmas Eve 814. Patriarch Nikephoros refuted the document produced by the commission and had the clergy sign a pledge to oppose iconoclasm with their lives. The next day, Leo requested the iconodule clergy to engage in a debate with the commission, and kissed a small icon to demonstrate his desire for compromise. The influential iconodule abbot,[[Theodore the Studite|Theodore the Stoudite]], asked the Emperor not to involve himself in theological matters. After several weeks of correspondence and attempts by Leo to persuade clergy of the compromise proposal, Nikephoros remained unwavering in his views. At the beginning of [[Lent]], he once again refused to discuss the issue and was deposed and exiled. Leo appointed the layman iconoclast [[Theodotus I of Constantinople|Theodotos I]], who held a synod to overturn the [[Second Council of Nicaea]] (787) and reaffirm the [[Council of Hieria]] (754) as the seventh [[ecumenical council]]. The ''Acts'' of the [[Council of Constantinople (815)]] differ from those of Hieria in that they do not charge the iconodules with idolatry, but rather "folly" and "recklessness": "we determine that the making of images is neither venerable nor useful, but we refrain from calling them idols, because even in evil exist different degrees". The central argument was that holy images were unsuitable if placed in areas that would implicitly or explicitly earn them the devotion and adoration which is due to [[God in Christianity|God]] alone. Empress [[Irene of Athens|Irene]] was criticised for introducing the veneration of images, which are said to circumscribe the uncircumscribable and separate [[Christology|Christ's humanity from his divinity]]. In this sense, images are also called "falsely-named" in that they do not truly represent what they are said to, since they do not share in the essence of the person depicted. Images are also not said to be endowed with [[Grace in Christianity|divine grace]].<ref name=":2" />{{RP|page=|pages=371-374}}

Leo's compromise policy resulted in great success, and Theodore of Stoudion reports in a letter that virtually the whole clergy of Constantinople adopted the imperial position, along with many bishops and laymen throughout the Empire. Those who refused to take communion with Patriarch Theodotos were forced into exile, and opponents of iconoclasm were often sentenced to [[flogging]]. However, Theodore also refers to "orthodox" churches which commemorated the name of the iconoclast Patriarch but still practiced the veneration of icons.<ref name=":2" />{{RP|page=|pages=376–379}} The Emperor seized the properties of iconodules and monasteries, such as the rich [[Monastery of Stoudios]], exiling Theodore the Stoudite. He also exiled other bishops that opposed him such as [[Anthony the Confessor]] and [[Theophanes the Confessor]].<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=432|pages=}}<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=289}}<ref> {{cite book |last1=Talbot |first1=Alice-Mary Maffry |author-link=Alice-Mary Talbot |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SaViaGCeiZIC |title=Holy Women of Byzantium: Ten Saints' Lives in English Translation |date=1996 |publisher=Dumbarton Oaks |isbn=978-0-88402-248-0 |pages=177–178 |language=en |chapter=Life of St. Theodora of Thessalonike |access-date=3 March 2024}}</ref>

Leo likely realised that it was impossible to force everyone to agree with him, and so, similar to Constans II, was less concerned with convincing his opponents of iconoclasm than with convincing them to compromise and not pursue the matter further. In other words, he was more interested in ecclesiastical unity rather than strict iconoclasm. For example, in the ''Life'' of [[Nicetas of Medikion]], it is reported that Patriarch Theodotos gave communion to iconodule monks while they were proclaiming "Anathema to those who do not venerate the icon of Christ". Icons were not tolerated in prominent public spaces but were allowed in private, so long as people recognised the iconoclast Patriarch.<ref name=":2" />{{RP|page=380|pages=}}
[[File:Victory of the Byzantines over the Bulgarians from John Skylitzes.jpg|thumb|The Byzantines crush the Bulgars near Mesembria.]]

=== Later years ===
Shortly after the reinstitution of iconoclasm, the new Khan of Bulgaria, [[Omurtag of Bulgaria|Omurtag]], executed his Byzantine captives who refused to renounce [[Christianity]], raided Thrace and ignored an imperial embassy, forcing Leo to fight. In the [[Battle of Mesembria]] of spring 816, Leo marched to the environs of [[Mesembria]] ([[Nesebar]]), camping near the Bulgars, pretending to flee and then ambushing them as they pursued him. He decisively defeated the Bulgar army and raided Bulgar territory, then concluding a [[Byzantine–Bulgarian treaty of 815|30-year peace treaty]] with Omurtag which restored the frontier of 780.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=|pages=432-433}} According to some sources, Krum participated in the battle and abandoned the battlefield heavily injured.<ref>[[John Skylitzes]], Synopsis of Histories (Σύνοψις Ἱστοριῶν), 13. 47–49</ref><ref>[[Joannes Zonaras]], Extracts of History (Επιτομή Ιστοριών), 381. 5–10</ref>

While Leo was successful on the Bulgar front, relations with the [[Franks]] and the [[Papacy]] were difficult. Theodotos attempted to establish friendly relations with [[Pope Paschal I]] (817–824) but was rebuffed. Theodore the Stoudite pre-empted these efforts through his correspondence with Paschal beforehand, in which he criticised the iconoclast patriarch and directly appealed to the papacy to restore orthodoxy in the Byzantine Empire.<ref name=":2" />{{RP|page=|pages=381-385}} 
Leo then worked to consolidate the Empire by rebuilding the [[Thracesian Theme|Thracesian]] and [[Macedonia (theme)|Macedonian Themes]]. In 817, he sent fleets to raid the weakened [[Abbasid Caliphate]] and led an army to retake the frontier fortress of [[Kemah, Erzincan|Kamachon]] which was lost under [[Constantine VI]]. In 818, the [[Rus' people|Rus']] raided the Empire for the first time, specifically the northern coast of [[Anatolia]], which Leo responded to by reinforcing the Armeniac Theme with naval squadrons. There was also mounting underground opposition to Leo's reign and iconoclasm especially among monastic communities, one of the leaders of which was Theodore the Stoudite. In 820, Leo uncovered and punished a conspiracy against him. Nevertheless, it appeared to Leo, his iconoclast supporters and even some iconodules that the Empire was now in God's favour with the reinstitution of iconoclasm, which had coincided with victory over the Bulgars as it had with Constantine V.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=433|pages=}}<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=282}} Even sources vehemently hostile to Leo (e.g., Theophanes Continuatus and Patriarch Nikephoros) acknowledge his competence in managing state affairs.<ref>[[Theophanes Continuatus]], 30. 14–15</ref> Although, as with all iconoclast emperors, his actions and intentions cannot be easily reconstructed due to the extreme bias of the iconodule sources (there are no surviving contemporary iconoclast sources of any kind).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lymberopoulou |first=Angeliki |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qnHPfZ7mr4YC&q=there+are+no+surviving+contemporary+iconoclast+sources+of+any+kind&pg=PA53 |title=Images of the Byzantine World: Visions, Messages and Meanings : Studies Presented to Leslie Brubaker |date=2011 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |isbn=978-1409407768 |language=en}}</ref> 
[[File:Michael the Stammerer is chained before Leo V and Empress Theodosia.jpg|thumb|The arrest of [[Michael II|Michael the Amorian]] before Leo V and [[Theodosia (wife of Leo V)|Theodosia]].]][[File:Emperor Leo V leading the chanting at Christmas.jpg|thumb|Emperor Leo attending the Christmas celebrations in the St. Stephen chapel.]]
===Assassination===
The conspiracy which was to overthrow Leo was led by the [[Domestic of the Excubitors]], [[Michael II|Michael the Amorian]], who disapproved of Leo's divorce and remarriage (he was married to the sister of the divorcée). In late 820, agents of the [[Logothetes tou dromou|Postal Logothete]] uncovered the plot. Leo imprisoned him and sentenced him to [[death by burning]], but Empress consort Theodosia arranged a postponement of the execution until after Christmas.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=433|pages=}} This allowed Michael to organise plotters to carry out the [[assassination]] of the Emperor in the palace chapel of St. Stephen on [[Christmas Eve]]. Leo was attending the ''matins'' service when a group of assassins disguised as members of the choir due to sing in the service suddenly threw off their robes and drew their weapons.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Herrin |first=Judith |title=Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire |publisher=Penguin |year=2007 |isbn=978-0713999976 |pages=51–52}}</ref>

In the dim light they mistook the officiating priest for the Emperor and the confusion allowed Leo to snatch a heavy cross from the altar and defend himself. He called for his guards, but the conspirators had barred the doors and within a few moments a sword stroke had severed his arm, and he fell before the communion-table, where his body was hewed in pieces. His remains were dumped unceremoniously in the snow and the assassins hurried to the dungeons to free Michael. 

Unfortunately for them Leo had hidden the key on his person, and since it was too early in the morning to find a blacksmith, Michael was hastily [[Coronation of the Byzantine emperor|crowned as emperor]] with the iron clasps still around his legs. Leo's family (including his mother and his wife, Theodosia) was exiled to monasteries on the [[Princes' Islands]]. His four sons (including ex co-emperor Symbatios) were castrated, a procedure so brutally carried out that one of them died during the "operation".<ref>[[Theophanes Continuatus]], 40–41. 7</ref>