Editing Leadership (section)

==Theories==
Anecdotal and incidental observations aside, the serious discipline of theorising leadership began in the 19th century.<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Ledlow
 |first1               = Gerald (Jerry) R.
 |last2                = Coppola
 |first2               = M. Nicholas
 |date                 =  2010
 |title                = Leadership for Health Professionals: Theory, Skills, and Applications
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=53wEIUfjSmUC
 |publication-place    = Sudbury, Massachusetts
 |publisher            = Jones & Bartlett Publishers
 |page                 = 6
 |isbn                 = 9781449619602
 |access-date          = 9 June 2024
 |quote                = [...] leadership theory and research is a relatively modern discipline. Indeed, the first relevant theories were not proposed until the mid-1800s.
}}
</ref>

===Early Western history===

The search for the characteristics or traits of leaders has continued for centuries. Philosophical writings from [[Plato]]'s ''[[The Republic (Plato)|Republic]]''<ref>Benjamin Jowett's translation of Plato's ''Republic'' does not use the word "leadership"; Plato discusses primarily a "[[Philosopher king|guardian]]" class. See {{cite book| author = Plato| author-link1 = Plato| title = The Dialogues of Plato translated into English with Analyses and Introductions by B. Jowett, M.A.| url = https://archive.org/stream/dialoguesofplato02platuoft| volume = 3| publisher = Oxford University Press| date = 1892| access-date = 2014-09-12}}</ref> to [[Plutarch's]] ''[[Parallel Lives|Lives]]'' have explored the question "What qualities distinguish an individual as a leader?" Underlying this search was the early recognition of the importance of leadership<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/business-learn-from-ancient-philosophers|title=What can business leaders learn from ancient philosophers?|last=Evans|first=Jules|date=2012-05-04|newspaper=The Guardian|language=en|access-date=2018-11-07}}</ref> and the assumption that leadership is rooted in the characteristics that certain individuals possess. This idea that leadership is based on individual attributes is known as the "[[trait leadership|trait theory of leadership]]".

A number of works in the 19th century – when the traditional authority of monarchs, lords, and bishops had begun to wane – explored the trait theory at length: especially the writings of [[Thomas Carlyle]] and of [[Francis Galton]]. In ''Heroes and Hero Worship'' (1841), Carlyle identified the talents, skills, and physical characteristics of men who rose to power. Galton's ''Hereditary Genius'' (1869) examined leadership qualities in the families of powerful men. After showing that the numbers of eminent relatives dropped off when his focus moved from first-degree to second-degree relatives, Galton concluded that leadership was inherited.

[[Cecil Rhodes]] (1853–1902) believed that public-spirited leadership could be nurtured by identifying young people with "moral force of character and instincts to lead", and educating them in contexts (such as the collegiate environment of the [[University of Oxford]]) that further developed such characteristics. International networks of such leaders could help to promote international understanding and help "render war impossible". This vision of leadership underlay the creation of the [[Rhodes Scholarships]], which have helped to shape notions of leadership since their creation in 1903.<ref>See {{cite book | author=[[Donald Markwell]] | title='Instincts to lead': on leadership, peace, and education | publisher=[[Connor Court Publishing]] | publication-place=Australia | year=2013 | isbn=978-1-922168-70-2 | oclc=865544191 | url=https://archive.org/details/instinctstoleado0000mark }}</ref>

===Rise of alternative theories===

In the late 1940s and early 1950s, a series of qualitative reviews<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|last=Bird|first=Charles|year=1940|title=Social Psychology|location=New York|publisher=Appleton-Century|series=The Century Psychology Series|url=https://archive.org/details/socialpsychology0000bird}}
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Stogdill | first1 = R. M. | year = 1948 | title = Personal factors associated with leadership: A survey of the literature | journal = Journal of Psychology | volume = 25 | pages = 35–71 | doi=10.1080/00223980.1948.9917362| pmid = 18901913 }}
|3={{cite journal | last1 = Mann | first1 = R. D. | year = 1959 | title = A review of the relationship between personality and performance in small groups | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_psychological-bulletin_1959-07_56_4/page/241 | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 56 | issue = 4| pages = 241–270 | doi=10.1037/h0044587}} }}</ref> prompted researchers to take a drastically different view of the driving forces behind leadership. In reviewing the extant literature, Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits were common across a number of studies, the overall evidence suggested that people who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations. Subsequently, leadership was no longer characterized as an enduring individual trait—situational approaches (see alternative leadership theories below) posited that individuals can be effective in certain situations, but not others. The focus then shifted away from traits of leaders to an investigation of the leader behaviors that were effective. This approach dominated much of the leadership theory and research for the next few decades.

===Reemergence of trait theory===

New methods and measurements were developed after these influential reviews that would ultimately reestablish [[trait theory]] as a viable approach to the study of leadership. For example, improvements in researchers' use of the [[Round-robin test|round-robin research design methodology]] allowed researchers to see that individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks.<ref name="Kenny, D.A. 1983">{{cite journal | last1 = Kenny | first1 = D.A. | last2 = Zaccaro | first2 = S.J. | year = 1983 | title = An estimate of variance due to traits in leadership | journal = Journal of Applied Psychology | volume = 68 | issue = 4| pages = 678–685 | doi=10.1037/0021-9010.68.4.678}}</ref> Additionally, during the 1980s statistical advances allowed researchers to conduct [[meta-analysis|meta-analyses]], in which they could quantitatively analyze and summarize the findings from a wide array of studies. This advent allowed trait theorists to create a comprehensive picture of previous leadership research rather than rely on the qualitative reviews of the past. Equipped with new methods, leadership researchers revealed the following:
* Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks.<ref name="Kenny, D.A. 1983"/>
* Significant relationships exist between leadership emergence and such individual traits as:
:*[[Intelligence]]<ref name="Lord, R.G. 1986">{{cite journal | last1 = Lord | first1 = R.G. | last2 = De Vader | first2 = C.L. | last3 = Alliger | first3 = G.M. | year = 1986 | title = A meta-analysis of the relation between personality traits and leader perceptions: An application of validity generalization procedures | journal = Journal of Applied Psychology | volume = 71 | issue = 3| pages = 402–410 | doi=10.1037/0021-9010.71.3.402}}</ref>
:*[[Adjustment (psychology)|Adjustment]]<ref name="Lord, R.G. 1986"/>
:*[[Extraversion]]<ref name="Lord, R.G. 1986"/>
:*[[Conscientiousness]]<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Arvey | first1 = R. D. | last2 = Rotundo | first2 = M. | last3 = Johnson | first3 = W. | last4 = Zhang | first4 = Z. | last5 = McGue | first5 = M. | year = 2006 | title = The determinants of leadership role occupancy: Genetic and personality factors | journal = The Leadership Quarterly | volume = 17 | pages = 1–20 | doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.10.009| citeseerx = 10.1.1.333.3080 }}
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Tagger | first1 = S. | last2 = Hackett | first2 = R. | last3 = Saha | first3 = S. | year = 1999 | title = Leadership emergence in autonomous work teams: Antecedents and outcomes | journal = [[Personnel Psychology]] | volume = 52 | issue = 4| pages = 899–926 | doi = 10.1111/j.1744-6570.1999.tb00184.x | doi-access = free}} }}</ref><ref name="Judge, T.A. 2002">{{cite journal | last1 = Judge | first1 = T.A. | last2 = Bono | first2 = J.E. | last3 = Ilies | first3 = R. | last4 = Gerhardt | first4 = M. W. | year = 2002 | title = Personality and leadership: A qualitative and quantitative review | journal = Journal of Applied Psychology | volume = 87 | issue = 4| pages = 765–780 | doi=10.1037/0021-9010.87.4.765| pmid = 12184579 }}</ref>
:*[[Openness to experience]]<ref name="Judge, T.A. 2002"/><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kickul | first1 = J. | last2 = Neuman | first2 = G. | year = 2000 | title = Emergence leadership behaviors: The function of personality and cognitive ability in determining teamwork performance and KSAs | journal = Journal of Business and Psychology | volume = 15 | pages = 27–51 | doi = 10.1023/A:1007714801558 | s2cid = 141377956 }}</ref>
:*General [[self-efficacy]]<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = J.A. | last2 = Foti | first2 = R.J. | year = 1998 | title = A pattern approach to the study of leader emergence | journal = The Leadership Quarterly | volume = 9 | issue = 2| pages = 147–160 | doi=10.1016/s1048-9843(98)90002-9}}</ref><ref name="Foti, R.J. 2007"/>

While the trait theory of leadership has certainly regained popularity, its reemergence has not been accompanied by a corresponding increase in sophisticated conceptual frameworks.<ref name="Zaccaro, S. J. 2007">{{cite journal | last1 = Zaccaro | first1 = S. J. | year = 2007 | title = Trait-based perspectives of leadership | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 62 | issue = 1| pages = 6–16 | doi=10.1037/0003-066x.62.1.6| pmid = 17209675 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.475.9808 | s2cid = 2762932 }}</ref>

Specifically, [[Stephen Zaccaro]] noted that trait theories still:<ref name="Zaccaro, S. J. 2007"/>
* focus on a small set of individual attributes such as the "[[Big Five personality traits|Big Five]]" personality traits, to the neglect of cognitive abilities, motives, values, [[social skills]], expertise, and problem-solving skills
* fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes
* do not distinguish between the leadership attributes that are generally not malleable over time and those that are shaped by, and bound to, situational influences
* do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioral diversity necessary for effective leadership

===Attribute pattern approach===

Considering the criticisms of the trait theory outlined above, several researchers adopted a different perspective of leader individual differences—the leader-attribute-pattern approach.<ref name="Foti, R.J. 2007">{{cite journal | last1 = Foti | first1 = R. J. | last2 = Hauenstein | first2 = N.M.A. | year = 2007 | title = Pattern and variable approaches in leadership emergence and effectiveness | journal = Journal of Applied Psychology | volume = 92 | issue = 2| pages = 347–355 | doi=10.1037/0021-9010.92.2.347| pmid = 17371083 }}</ref><ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|last1=Zaccaro|first1=S. J.|last2=Gulick|first2=L. M. V.|last3=Khare|first3=V. P.|year=2008|chapter=Personality and leadership|editor-first1=C. J.|editor-last1=Hoyt|editor-first2=G. R. |editor-last2=Goethals |editor-first3= D.R. |editor-last3=Forsyth
|title=Leadership at the crossroads|volume=1|pages=13–29|location=Westport, Conn.|publisher= Praeger}}
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Gershenoff | first1 = A. G. | last2 = Foti | first2 = R.J. | year = 2003 | title = Leader emergence and gender roles in all-female groups: A contextual examination | journal = Small Group Research | volume = 34 | issue = 2| pages = 170–196 | doi=10.1177/1046496402250429| s2cid = 145054262 }}
|3={{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = J.A. | last2 = Foti | first2 = R.J. | year = 1998 | title = A pattern approach to the study of leader emergence | journal = Leadership Quarterly | volume = 9 | issue = 2| pages = 147–160 | doi=10.1016/s1048-9843(98)90002-9}} }}</ref><ref name="Mumford, M. D. 2000">{{cite journal | last1 = Mumford | first1 = M.D. | last2 = Zaccaro | first2 = S.J. | last3 = Harding | first3 = F.D. | last4 = Jacobs | first4 = T. O. | last5 = Fleishman | first5 = E.A. | year = 2000 | title = Leadership skills for a changing world solving complex social problems | journal = The Leadership Quarterly | volume = 11 | pages = 11–35 | doi=10.1016/s1048-9843(99)00041-7}}</ref> In contrast to the traditional approach, the leader-attribute-pattern approach is based on theorists' arguments that the influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated totality rather than a summation of individual variables.<ref name="Mumford, M. D. 2000"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Magnusson|first1= D.|year=1995|chapter=Holistic interactionism: A perspective for research on personality development|editor-first1=L.A.|editor-last1=Pervin |editor-first2=O.P. |editor-last2=John |title=Handbook of personality: Theory and research|pages=219–247|location= New York |publisher=Guilford Press}}</ref> In other words, the leader-attribute-pattern approach argues that integrated constellations or combinations of individual differences may explain substantial variance in both leader emergence and leader effectiveness beyond that explained by single attributes, or by additive combinations of multiple attributes.

===Behavioral and style theories===
{{Main|Managerial grid model}}

In response to the early criticisms of the trait approach, theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviors by evaluating the behavior of successful leaders, determining a behavior taxonomy, and identifying broad leadership styles.<ref>{{cite journal |title = Towards a theory of leadership practice |first3=John B. |last3=Diamond |first1=James P. |first2=Richard |last2=Halverson |last1=Spillane |journal = Journal of Curriculum Studies |volume= 36 | issue = 1 |pages=3–34 |year=2004 |doi=10.1080/0022027032000106726|s2cid=3094291}}
</ref> [[David McClelland]], for example, posited that leadership requires a strong personality with a well-developed positive ego. To lead, self-confidence and high self-esteem are useful, perhaps even essential.<ref>{{cite book|last=Horton|first=Thomas|location=New York|title=The CEO Paradox|publisher=American Management Association|year=1992|isbn=9780814450932 |url=https://archive.org/details/ceoparadoxprivil00hort}}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>
[[File:Management Grid.PNG|right|thumb|200px|A graphical representation of the managerial grid model]]

[[Kurt Lewin]], Ronald Lipitt, and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance. The researchers evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under different types of work climate. In each, the leader exercised his influence regarding the type of [[group decision making]], [[praise]] and [[criticism]] ([[feedback]]), and the management of the group tasks ([[project management]]) according to three styles: [[#Autocratic or authoritarian|authoritarian]], [[#Participative or democratic|democratic]], and [[#Laissez-faire or free-rein leadership|laissez-faire]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Lewin |first1 = Kurt |author1-link = Kurt Lewin |last2 = Lippitt |first2 = Ronald |last3 = White | first3 = Ralph | title = Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created social climates |journal = [[The Journal of Social Psychology]] |pages = 271–301 |year = 1939 }}
</ref>

In 1945, Ohio State University conducted a study which investigated observable behaviors portrayed by effective leaders. They identified particular behaviors that were reflective of leadership effectiveness. They narrowed their findings to two dimensions.<ref>"Ohio State Leadership Studies Explained with Examples" (2017){{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}</ref> The first dimension, "initiating structure", described how a leader clearly and accurately communicates with the followers, defines goals, and determines how tasks are performed. These are considered "task oriented" behaviors. The second dimension, "consideration", indicates the leader's ability to build an interpersonal relationship with their followers, and to establish a form of mutual trust. These are considered "social oriented" behaviors.<ref>AAmodt (2015){{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>

The Michigan State Studies, which were conducted in the 1950s, made further investigations and findings that positively correlated behaviors and leadership effectiveness. Although they had similar findings as the Ohio State studies, they also contributed an additional behavior identified in leaders: participative behavior (also called "servant leadership"), or allowing the followers to participate in group decision making and encouraged subordinate input. This entails avoiding controlling types of leadership and allows more personal interactions between leaders and their subordinates.<ref>Stoker (2016){{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>

The managerial grid model is also based on a behavioral theory. The model was developed by [[Robert Blake (management)|Robert Blake]] and [[Jane Mouton]] in 1964. It suggests five different leadership styles, based on the leaders' concern for people and their concern for goal achievement.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Blake |first1=R. |last2=Mouton |first2=J.|title = The Managerial Grid: The Key to Leadership Excellence |year=1964 |publisher=Gulf Publishing Co. |location=Houston, TX }}</ref>

====Positive reinforcement====
[[B. F. Skinner]] is the father of [[behavior modification]] and developed the concept of [[positive reinforcement]]. Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented in response to a behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior in the future.<ref>{{cite book|last=Miltenberger|first=R.G.|year=2004|title=Behavior Modification Principles and Procedures|edition=3rd|location=Belmont, California|publisher=Wadsworth/Thomson Learning}}</ref> The following is an example of how positive reinforcement can be used in a business setting. Assume [[praise]] is a positive reinforcer for a particular employee. This employee does not show up to work on time every day. The manager decides to praise the employee for showing up on time every day the employee actually shows up to work on time. As a result, the employee comes to work on time more often because the employee likes to be praised. In this example, praise (the stimulus) is a positive reinforcer for this employee because the employee arrives at work on time (the behavior) more frequently after being praised for showing up to work on time.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html|title = Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)|website= Simply Psychology| year=2007 | last1=McLeod | first1=Saul }}</ref>

Positive reinforcement is a successful technique used by leaders to motivate and attain desired behaviors from subordinates. Organizations such as Frito-Lay, 3M, Goodrich, Michigan Bell, and Emery Air Freight have all used reinforcement to increase productivity.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lussier|first1=R.N.|last2=Achua|first2=C. F.|year=2010|title=Leadership, Theory, Application, & Skill Development|edition=4th|location=Mason, Ohio|publisher=South-Western Cengage Learning}}</ref> Empirical research covering the last 20 years{{update inline|reason="last" ending when?|date=August 2023}} suggests that applying [[reinforcement theory]] leads to a 17 percent increase in performance. Additionally, many reinforcement techniques such as the use of praise are inexpensive, providing higher performance for lower costs.

===Situational and contingency theories===
{{Main|Fiedler contingency model|Vroom–Yetton decision model|path–goal theory|Substitutes for Leadership Theory}}

Situational theory is another reaction to the trait theory of leadership. [[social science|Social scientists]] argued that history was more than the result of intervention of [[Great man theory|great men]] as [[Thomas Carlyle|Carlyle]] suggested. [[Herbert Spencer]] (1884) (and [[Karl Marx]]) said that the times produce the person and not the other way around.<ref>{{multiref2
|1= {{cite book |last=Spencer |first=Herbert |author-link=Herbert Spencer |title=The Study of Sociology |year=1841|location=New York|publisher=D.A. Appleton |isbn=978-0-314-71117-5}}
|2= {{cite book |last=Heifetz|first=Ronald |author-link=Ronald A. Heifetz |title=Leadership without Easy Answers |year=1994 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] |isbn=978-0-674-51858-2 |page=16 |url-access=registration |url = https://archive.org/details/leadershipwithou00heif}} }}</ref> This theory assumes that different situations call for different characteristics: no single optimal psychographic profile of a leader exists. According to the theory, "what an individual actually does when acting as a leader is in large part dependent upon characteristics of the situation in which he functions."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hemphill |first1 = John K. |title=Situational Factors in Leadership |year=1949 |publisher=Ohio State University Bureau of Educational Research |location=Columbus}}</ref>

Some theorists synthesized the trait and situational approaches. Building upon the research of Lewin et al.,<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Lewin |first1 = Kurt |author1-link = Kurt Lewin |last2 = Lippitt |first2 = Ronald |last3 = White | first3 = Ralph | title = Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created social climates |journal = [[The Journal of Social Psychology]] |pages = 271–301 |year = 1939}}</ref> academics normalized the descriptive models of leadership climates, defining three leadership styles and identifying which situations each style works better in. The authoritarian leadership style, for example, is approved in periods of crisis but fails to win the "hearts and minds" of followers in day-to-day management; the democratic leadership style is more adequate in situations that require consensus building; finally, the laissez-faire leadership style is appreciated for the degree of freedom it provides, but as the leaders do not "take charge", they can be perceived as a failure in protracted or thorny organizational problems.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Van Wormer |first1=Katherine S. |last2=Besthorn |first2=Fred H. |last3=Keefe |first3= Thomas |title=Human Behavior and the Social Environment: Macro Level: Groups, Communities, and Organizations |year=2007|location=US|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-518754-0|page=198}}</ref> Theorists defined the style of leadership as contingent to the situation; this is sometimes called [[contingency theory]]. Three contingency leadership theories are the Fiedler contingency model, the Vroom-Yetton decision model, and the path-goal theory.

The [[Fiedler contingency model]] bases the leader's effectiveness on what [[Fred Fiedler]] called ''situational contingency''. This results from the interaction of leadership style and situational favorability (later called ''situational control''). The theory defines two types of leader: those who tend to accomplish the task by developing good relationships with the group (relationship-oriented), and those who have as their prime concern carrying out the task itself (task-oriented).<ref>{{cite book |last = Fiedler |first = Fred E. |author-link = Fred Fiedler |title = A theory of leadership effectiveness |publisher = Harper and Row Publishers Inc. |year = 1967 |location = McGraw-Hill}}</ref> According to Fiedler, there is no ideal leader. Both task-oriented and relationship-oriented leaders can be effective if their leadership orientation fits the situation. When there is a good leader-member relation, a highly structured task, and high leader position power, the situation is considered a "favorable situation". Fiedler found that task-oriented leaders are more effective in extremely favorable or unfavorable situations, whereas relationship-oriented leaders perform best in situations with intermediate favorability.

[[Victor Vroom]], in collaboration with Phillip Yetton<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vroom|first1=Victor H.|author-link1=Victor Vroom|last2=Yetton|first2=Phillip W.|title=Leadership and Decision-Making| year=1973|location=Pittsburgh|publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |isbn=978-0-8229-3266-6}}</ref> and later with Arthur Jago,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Vroom|first1=Victor H. |author1-link = Victor Vroom |last2=Jago|first2=Arthur G. |title=The New Leadership: Managing Participation in Organizations|year=1988|location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey |publisher=Prentice-Hall|isbn=978-0-13-615030-5|url-access=registration |url = https://archive.org/details/newleadershipman0000vroo }}</ref> developed a [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomy]] for describing leadership situations. They used this in a normative [[Vroom-Yetton decision model|decision model]] in which leadership styles were connected to situational variables, defining which approach was more suitable to which situation.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Theoretical Letters: The person versus the situation in leadership |first1=Victor H. |last1=Vroom |author1-link = Victor Vroom |last2=Sternberg|first2=Robert J. |journal=[[Leadership (journal)|Leadership]]|volume= 13 |pages=301–323|year=2002 |doi=10.1016/S1048-9843(02)00101-7 |issue=3}}</ref> This approach supported the idea that a manager could rely on different [[group decision making]] approaches depending on the attributes of each situation. This model was later referred to as situational contingency theory.<ref>{{cite journal|author-link=Jay W. Lorsch|last=Lorsch|first=J.W.|date=Spring 1974|title=Book Review: ''Leadership and Decision Making'' by Vroom & Yetton|journal=[[MIT Sloan Management Review]]|volume=15|number=3|page=100}}</ref>

The [[path-goal theory]] of leadership was developed by Robert House and was based on the [[expectancy theory]] of [[Victor Vroom]].<ref>{{cite journal | last = House| first = Robert J. | title = A path-goal theory of leader effectiveness | journal = [[Administrative Science Quarterly]] |volume=16 | pages = 321–339 | year = 1971 | doi = 10.2307/2391905 | issue = 3 | jstor = 2391905}}</ref> According to House, "leaders, to be effective, engage in behaviors that complement subordinates' environments and abilities in a manner that compensates for deficiencies and is instrumental to subordinate satisfaction and individual and work unit performance".<ref>{{cite journal | last = House| first = Robert J.| title = Path-goal theory of leadership: Lessons, legacy, and a reformulated theory | journal = [[Leadership (journal)|Leadership Quarterly]]|volume=7 |issue=3 | pages = 323–352 | year = 1996 | doi = 10.1016/S1048-9843(96)90024-7 }}</ref> The theory identifies four leader behaviors, ''achievement-oriented'', ''directive'', ''participative'', and ''supportive'', that are contingent to environment factors and follower characteristics. In contrast to the [[Fiedler contingency model]], the path-goal model states that the four leadership behaviors are fluid, and that leaders can adopt any of the four depending on what the situation demands. The path-goal model can be classified both as a [[Contingency leadership theory|contingency theory]], as it depends on the circumstances, and as a [[Transactional leadership|transactional leadership theory]], as the theory emphasizes the reciprocity behavior between the leader and the followers.

===Functional theory===
{{Main|Functional leadership model}}
[[File:Defense.gov News Photo 100805-F-7552L-211 - Commander of the International Security Assistance Force Gen. David H. Petraeus center U.S. Army talks with U.S. soldiers of the 2nd Battalion.jpg|thumb|General [[David Petraeus]] talks with U.S. soldiers serving in Afghanistan.]]
Functional leadership theory<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|last1=Hackman|first1=J.R.|last2=Walton|first2=R.E.|year=1986|chapter=Leading groups in organizations|editor-first=P.S.|editor-last=Goodman|display-editors=etal|title=Designing influential workgroups}}
|2=[[McGrath]], 1962{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}
|3=Adair, 1988{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}
|4=Kouzes & Posner, 1995{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} }}</ref> addresses specific leader behaviors that contribute to organizational or unit effectiveness. This theory argues that the leader's main job is to see that whatever is necessary to group needs is taken care of; thus, a leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to group effectiveness and cohesion.<ref>{{multiref2
|1=Fleishman et al., 1991{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}
|2=Hackman & Wageman, 2005{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}
|3={{cite book|last1=Hackman|first1=J.R.|last2=Walton|first2=R.E.|year=1986|chapter=Leading groups in organizations|editor-first=P. S.|editor-last=Goodman|display-editors=etal|title=Designing influential workgroups}} }}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} While functional leadership theory has most often been applied to team leadership,<ref>Zaccaro, Rittman, & Marks, 2001{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} it has also been effectively applied to broader organizational leadership as well.<ref>Zaccaro, 2001{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} In summarizing literature on functional leadership, researchers<ref>{{multiref2
|1=Kozlowski et al. (1996){{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}
|2=Zaccaro et al. (2001){{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}
|3={{cite book|last1=Hackman|first1=J.R.|last2=Walton|first2=R.E.|year=1986|chapter=Leading groups in organizations|editor-first=P. S.|editor-last=Goodman|display-editors=etal|title=Designing influential workgroups}}
|4=Hackman & Wageman (2005){{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}
|5=morge (2005){{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}
|6=Klein, Zeigert, Knight, and Xiao (2006) {{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} }}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organization's effectiveness. These functions include environmental monitoring, organizing subordinate activities, teaching and coaching subordinates, motivating others, and intervening actively in the group's work.

Various leadership behaviors facilitate these functions. In initial work identifying leader behavior, Fleishman observed that subordinates perceived their supervisors' behavior in terms of two broad categories referred to as [[consideration and initiating structure]].<ref>Fleishman (1953){{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} Consideration includes behavior involved in fostering effective relationships. Examples of such behavior would include showing concern for a subordinate or acting in a supportive manner towards others. Initiating structure involves the actions of the leader focused specifically on task accomplishment. This could include role clarification, setting performance standards, and holding subordinates accountable to those standards.

===Integrated psychological theory===
{{Main|Three Levels of Leadership model}}

The Integrated Psychological Theory of leadership attempts to integrate the strengths of the older theories (i.e. traits, behavioral/styles, situational and functional) while addressing their limitations, introducing a new element – the need for leaders to develop their leadership presence, attitude toward others, and behavioral flexibility by practicing psychological mastery. It also offers a foundation for leaders wanting to apply the philosophies of [[servant leadership]] and [[authentic leadership]].

Integrated psychological theory began to attract attention after the publication of James Scouller's [[Three Levels of Leadership model]] (2011).<ref name=Scouller>{{cite book|last=Scouller|first=James|year=2011|title=The Three Levels of Leadership: How to Develop Your Leadership Presence, Knowhow and Skill|location=Cirencester|publisher=Management Books 2000|isbn=9781852526818}}</ref>
Scouller argued that older theories offered only limited assistance in developing a person's ability to lead effectively.{{r|Scouller|pages=34–35}} He pointed out, for example, that:
* Traits theories, which tend to reinforce the idea that leaders are born not made, might help us select leaders, but they are less useful for developing leaders.
* An ideal style (e.g. Blake & Mouton's team style) would not suit all circumstances.
* Most of the situational/contingency and functional theories assume that leaders can change their behavior to meet differing circumstances or widen their behavioral range at will, when in practice many find it hard to do so because of unconscious beliefs, fears, or ingrained habits. Thus, he argued, leaders need to work on their inner psychology.
* None of the older theories successfully addressed the challenge of developing "[[Three Levels of Leadership model#Leadership presence|leadership presence]]"—that certain "something" in leaders that commands attention, inspires people, wins their trust, and makes followers want to work with them.

Scouller's model aims to summarize what leaders have to do, not only to bring leadership to their group or organization, but also to develop themselves technically and psychologically as leaders. The three levels in his model are public, private, and personal leadership:
* The first two—public and private leadership—are "outer" or behavioral levels. These behaviors address what Scouller called "the four dimensions of leadership". These dimensions are: (1) a shared, motivating group purpose; (2) action, progress and results; (3) collective unity or team spirit; and (4) individual selection and motivation. [[Three Levels of Leadership model#Public leadership|Public leadership]] focuses on the 34 behaviors involved in influencing two or more people simultaneously. [[Three Levels of Leadership model#Private leadership|Private leadership]] covers the 14 behaviors needed to influence individuals one-to-one.
* The third—[[Three Levels of Leadership model#Personal leadership|personal leadership]]—is an "inner" level and concerns a person's growth toward greater leadership presence, know-how, and skill. Working on one's personal leadership has three aspects: (1) Technical know-how and skill, (2) Developing the right attitude toward other people, which is the basis of servant leadership, and (3) Psychological self-mastery, the foundation for authentic leadership.

Scouller argued that self-mastery is the key to growing one's leadership presence, building trusting relationships with followers, and dissolving one's limiting beliefs and habits. This enables behavioral flexibility as circumstances change, while staying connected to one's core values (that is, while remaining authentic). To support leaders' development, he introduced a new model of the human psyche and outlined the principles and techniques of self-mastery, which include the practice of [[Mindfulness#Mindfulness meditation in organizations|mindfulness meditation]].{{r|Scouller|pages=137–237}}

===Transactional and transformational theories===
{{Main|Transactional leadership|Transformational leadership}}

[[Bernard Bass]] and colleagues developed the idea of two different types of leadership: ''transactional'' which involves exchange of labor for rewards, and ''transformational'' which is based on concern for employees, intellectual stimulation, and providing a group vision.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Bass | first1 = B. M. | last2 = Avolio | first2 = B. J. | last3 = Atwater | first3 = L. E. | year = 1996 | title = The transformational and transactional leadership of men and women | journal = Applied Psychology: An International Review | volume = 45 | pages = 5–34 | doi=10.1111/j.1464-0597.1996.tb00847.x}}
|2={{cite book|last1=Bass|first1=B. M.|last2=Riggio|first2=R. E.|year=2006|title=Transformational leadership|edition=2nd|location=Mahwah, New Jersey|publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers}} }}</ref>

The transactional leader<ref name="Burns">{{cite book| last = Burns| first = J. M.| author-link =James MacGregor Burns| title = Leadership| url = https://archive.org/details/leadership00burn_0| url-access = registration| publisher = Harper and Row Publishers Inc.| year = 1978| location = New York| isbn = 978-0060105884}}</ref> is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the team's performance. It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else. Power is given to the leader to evaluate, correct, and train subordinates when productivity is not up to the desired level, and reward effectiveness when expected outcome is reached.

===Leader–member exchange theory===
{{Main|Leader–member exchange theory}}
Leader–member exchange (LMX) theory addresses a specific aspect of the leadership process,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Graen | first1 = G.B. | last2 = Novak | first2 = M. A. | last3 = Sommerkamp | first3 = P. | year = 1982 | title = The effects of leader-member exchange and job design on productivity and satisfaction: Testing a dual attachment model | journal = Organizational Behavior and Human Performance | volume = 30 | issue = 1| pages = 109–131 | doi = 10.1016/0030-5073(82)90236-7 }}</ref> which evolved from an earlier theory called the vertical dyad linkage model.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dansereau | first1 = F. | last2 = Graen | first2 = G. | last3 = Haga | first3 = W.J. | year = 1975 | title = A vertical dyad linkage approach to leadership within formal organizations: A longitudinal investigation of the role making process | journal = Organizational Behavior and Human Performance | volume = 13 | issue = 1| pages = 46–78 | doi=10.1016/0030-5073(75)90005-7}}</ref> Both of these models focus on the interaction between leaders and individual followers. Similar to the transactional approach, this interaction is viewed as a fair exchange whereby the leader provides certain benefits such as task guidance, advice, support, and/or significant rewards and the followers reciprocate by giving the leader respect, cooperation, commitment to the task and good performance. However, LMX recognizes that leaders and individual followers will vary in the type of exchange that develops between them.<ref name="Howell, Jon P.">{{cite book|last=Howell|first=Jon P.|title=Snapshots of Great Leadership|year=2012|publisher=Taylor and Francis|location=London, GBR|isbn=9780203103210|pages=[https://archive.org/details/snapshotsofgreat0000howe/page/16 16–17]|url=https://archive.org/details/snapshotsofgreat0000howe/page/16}}</ref> LMX theorizes that the type of exchanges between the leader and specific followers can lead to the creation of ''in-groups'' and ''out-groups''. In-group members are said to have ''high-quality exchanges'' with the leader, while out-group members have ''low-quality exchanges'' with the leader.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite book|last=Howell|first=Jon P.|title=Snapshots of Great Leadership|year=2012|publisher=Taylor and Francis|location=London, GBR|isbn=9780203103210|page=[https://archive.org/details/snapshotsofgreat0000howe/page/17 17]|url=https://archive.org/details/snapshotsofgreat0000howe/page/17}}</ref>

====In-group members====

[[In-group]] members are perceived by the leader as being more experienced, competent, and willing to assume responsibility than other followers. The leader begins to rely on these individuals to help with especially challenging tasks. If the follower responds well, the leader rewards them with extra coaching, favorable job assignments, and developmental experiences. If the follower shows high commitment and effort followed by additional rewards, both parties develop mutual trust, influence, and support of one another. Research shows the in-group members usually receive higher performance evaluations from the leader, higher satisfaction, and faster promotions than out-group members.<ref name="Howell, Jon P."/> In-group members are also likely to build stronger bonds with their leaders by sharing the same social backgrounds and interests.

====Out-group members====

[[Ingroups and outgroups|Out-group]] members often receive less time and more distant exchanges than their in-group counterparts. With out-group members, leaders expect no more than adequate [[job performance]], good attendance, reasonable respect, and adherence to the job description in exchange for a [[living wage|fair wage]] and standard benefits. The leader spends less time with out-group members, they have fewer developmental experiences, and the leader tends to emphasize his/her formal authority to obtain compliance to leader requests. Research shows that out-group members are less satisfied with their job and organization, receive lower performance evaluations from the leader, see their leader as less fair, and are more likely to file grievances or leave the organization.<ref name="Howell, Jon P."/>

===Emotions===
{{see also|Emotional intelligence}}
Leadership can be an emotion-laden process, with emotions entwined with the social influence process.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = George | first1 = J. M. | year = 2000 | title = Emotions and leadership: The role of emotional intelligence | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_human-relations_2000-08_53_8/page/1027 | journal = Human Relations | volume = 53 | issue = 8| pages = 1027–1055 | doi=10.1177/0018726700538001| s2cid = 145349886 }}</ref> A leader's mood affects his/her group. These effects can be described in three levels:<ref name=cote>{{cite journal| last1=Sy | first1=T.| last2=Cote | first2=S.| last3=Saavedra | first3=R.| year=2005| title=The contagious leader: Impact of the leader's mood on the mood of group members, group affective tone, and group processes| journal=Journal of Applied Psychology| volume=90 | issue=2| pages=295–305| url=http://www-2.rotman.utoronto.ca/~scote/SyetalJAP.pdf| doi=10.1037/0021-9010.90.2.295| pmid=15769239}}</ref>
; The mood of individual group members : Members of groups whose leaders are in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood. Leaders transmit their moods to other group members through the mechanism of [[emotional contagion]].<ref name=cote/> Mood contagion may be one of the psychological mechanisms by which [[charismatic]] leaders influence followers.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bono | first1 = J. E. | last2 = Ilies | first2 = R. | year = 2006 | title = Charisma, positive emotions and mood contagion | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_leadership-quarterly_2006-08_17_4/page/317 | journal = The Leadership Quarterly | volume = 17 | issue = 4| pages = 317–334 | doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.04.008}}</ref>
; The affective tone of the group : [[Group affective tone]] represents the consistent or homogeneous affective reactions within a group. Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis. Groups with leaders in a positive mood have a more positive affective tone than do groups with leaders in a negative mood.<ref name=cote/>
; Group processes like coordination, effort expenditure, and [[Task (project management)|task]] [[strategy]] : Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act. When people experience and express mood, they send signals to others. Leaders signal their goals, intentions, and attitudes through their expressions of moods. For example, expressions of positive moods by leaders signal that leaders deem progress toward goals to be good. The group members respond to those signals cognitively and behaviorally in ways that are reflected in the group processes.<ref name=cote/>
In research about client service, it was found that expressions of positive mood by the [[leader]] improve the performance of the group, although in other sectors there were other findings.<ref name=george>{{cite journal | last1 = George | first1 = J.M. | year = 2006 | title = Leader Positive Mood and Group Performance: The Case of Customer Service | journal = Journal of Applied Social Psychology | volume = 25 | issue = 9| pages = 778–794 | doi = 10.1111/j.1559-1816.1995.tb01775.x }}</ref>

Beyond the leader's mood, her/his behavior is a source for employee positive and negative [[emotions]] at work. The leader's behavior creates situations and events that lead to emotional response, for example by giving feedback, allocating tasks, and distributing resources. Since employee behavior and productivity are affected by their emotional states, it is imperative to consider employee emotional responses to organizational leaders.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dasborough | first1 = M. T. | year = 2006 | title = Cognitive asymmetry in employee emotional reactions to leadership behaviors | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_leadership-quarterly_2006-04_17_2/page/163 | journal = The Leadership Quarterly | volume = 17 | issue = 2| pages = 163–178 | doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.12.004}}</ref> Emotional intelligence—the ability to understand and manage moods and emotions in the self and others—contributes to effective leadership within organizations.<ref name=george/>

===Neo-emergent theory===
{{Main|Functional leadership model}}

The neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford Strategic Leadership Programme<ref>{{cite book
 | last1 = Sadler
 | first1 = Philip
 | year = 2003
 | chapter = The development process
 | title = Leadership
 | url =  https://books.google.com/books?id=JVWBQwxR7UoC
 | series = MBA masterclass series
 | edition = 2
 | location = London
 | publisher = Kogan Page Publishers
 | publication-date = 2003
 | page = 108
 | isbn = 9780749439194
 | access-date = 15 December 2019
 | quote = Templeton College has developed a course for very senior managers, known as the Oxford Strategic Leadership Programme.
}}</ref>)
sees leadership as an impression formed through the communication of [[public relations|information]] by the leader or by other stakeholders,<ref>
{{cite book
 | last1 = Ola
 | first1 = Bolarinde
 | chapter = A Critique of Conceptual Leadership Styles'
 | editor1-last = Godbole
 | editor1-first = Prasad
 | editor2-last = Burke
 | editor2-first = Derek
 | editor3-last = Aylott
 | editor3-first = Jill
 | title = Why Hospitals Fail: Between Theory and Practice
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xjUqDwAAQBAJ
 | location = Cham (Switzerland)
 | publisher = Springer International Publishing
 | date = 2017
 | page = 59
 | isbn = 9783319562247
 | access-date = 15 December 2019
 | quote = Neo-emergent theory describes the use of intelligent information management to account for stewardship to benefit the leader. The practice is widespread, where for example, a leader or other stakeholders use sponsored advertisements, press releases and blogs on social media to create a good impression of leadership.
}}</ref> not through the actions of the leader.{{citation needed|date= August 2014}} In other words, the reproduction of information or [[narrative|stories]] form the basis of the perception of leadership by the majority. It is well known by historians that the naval hero [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson|Lord Nelson]] often wrote his own versions of battles he was involved in, so that when he arrived home in England, he would receive a true hero's welcome.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Palmer|first=Michael A.|date=1988|title=Lord Nelson: Master of Command|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44636707|journal=Naval War College Review|volume=41|issue=1|pages=105–116|jstor=44636707|access-date=June 20, 2021}}</ref> In modern society, various media outlets, including the press and blogs, present their own interpretations of leaders. These depictions can stem from actual circumstances, but they might also arise from political influences, monetary incentives, or the personal agendas of the author, media, or leader. Consequently, the impression of leaders is often constructed and may not accurately mirror their genuine leadership attributes. This highlights the historical role of concepts like [[royal blood|royal lineage]], which once stood as a substitute for evaluating or comprehending adept governance abilities.

=== Constructivist analysis ===
Some [[social constructivism|constructivist]]s question whether leadership exists, or suggest that (for example) leadership "is a myth equivalent to a belief in UFOs".<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book
 | last1 = Elgie
 | first1 = Robert
 | author-link1 = Robert Elgie (academic)
 | year = 2015
 | title = Studying Political Leadership: Foundations and Contending Accounts
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=W1jeCgAAQBAJ
 | series = Palgrave Studies in Political Leadership
 | publisher = Springer
 | publication-date = 2016
 | isbn = 9781137347084
 | access-date = 15 December 2019
 | quote = [...] some constructivists [...] question whether any such thing as leadership exists out there in the world. So for Gemmill and Oakley (2002), leadership is a myth equivalent to a belief in UFOs. For Spoelstra (2013), leadership is an invisible, non-objective phenomenon.}}
|2={{cite book
 | last1 = Vasconcelos e Sá
 | first1 = Jorge
 | title = There is no leadership: only effective management: Lessons from Lee's Perfest Battle, Xenophon's Cyrus the Great and the practice of the best managers in the world
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=rhIpAwAAQBAJ
 | location = Porto
 | publisher = Vida Economica Editorial
 | date = 2012
 | page = 19
 | isbn = 9789727886012
 | access-date = 15 December 2019
 | quote = [...] to ask what is leadership about [...] is a false question. The right question is: what is ''effective management?''
}} }}</ref>

=== Ontological-phenomenological model ===
[[Werner Erhard]], [[Michael C. Jensen]], Steve Zaffron, and Kari Granger described leadership as "an exercise in language that results in the realization of a future that was not going to happen anyway, which future fulfills (or contributes to fulfilling) the concerns of the relevant parties." In this definition leadership concerns the future and includes the fundamental concerns of the relevant parties. This differs from relating to the relevant parties as "followers" and calling up an image of a single leader with others following. Rather, a future that fulfills the fundamental concerns of the relevant parties indicates the future that was not going to happen is not the "idea of the leader", but rather is what emerges from digging deep to find the underlying concerns of those who are impacted by the leadership.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Erhard |first1=Werner |title=The Handbook for Teaching Leadership |last2=Jensen |first2=Michael C. |last3=Granger |first3=Kari |publisher=Sage Publications |year=2011 |editor-last1=Snook |editor-first1=Scott |chapter=Creating Leaders: An Ontological/Phenomenological Model |editor-last2=Nohria |editor-first2=Nitin |editor-last3=Khurana |editor-first3=Rakesh}}</ref>