Editing Lapidary (section)

==History==
{{Further|Engraved gem}}
[[File: Lapidary tool kit, NPS.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A small, translucent quartz-like chisel tool sits on a square brown tile. A small square of turquoise stone sits to its lower right.|Lapidary tool kit from around 900 AD, [[Chaco Culture National Historical Park]]]]
The earliest known lapidary work likely occurred during the [[Stone Age]].<ref name="Ripley"/><ref>{{Cite book|author1=Cocca, Enzo |author2=Mutri, Guiseppina|year=2013|chapter=The lithic assemblages: production, use and discard|editor=Garcea, Elena A. A.|title=Gobero: The No-Return Frontier Archaeology and Landscape at the Sahara-Sahelian Borderland|series=Journal of African Archaeology Monograph Series 9 |publisher=Africa Magna Verlag|location=Frankfurt am Main, Germany|pages=129&ndash;166|isbn=978-3-937248-34-9}}</ref> As people created tools from stone, they realized that some geological materials were harder than others. The next earliest documented examples of what could be considered lapidary arts came in the form of drilling stone and rock. The earliest roots of drilling rocks date back to approximately one million years ago.<ref>[http://www.gemsociety.org/article/the-history-of-lapidary/ The full and complete history of the lapidary arts] International Gem Society, Retrieved January 7, 2015</ref>

The early Egyptians developed cutting and jewelry fashioning methods for [[lapis lazuli]], [[turquoise]], and [[amethyst]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=Kraus, Pansy D.|chapter=History of Lapidary|year=1987|title=Introduction To Lapidary|publisher=Krause Publications|location=Iola, Wisconsin|page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00krau/page/1 1]|isbn=978-0-8019-7266-9|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00krau/page/1}}</ref>

The art of lapidary was relatively well-developed in the [[Indian subcontinent]] by the early 1st millennium CE. The surviving manuscripts of the 3rd century Buddhist text {{lang|sa-Latn|Rathanpariksha}} by Buddha Bhatta,{{Citation needed|reason=Source needed; title and author cannot be confirmed online.|date=April 2018}} and several Hindu texts of mid-1st millennium CE such as {{lang|sa-Latn|Agni Purana}} and {{lang|sa-Latn|Agastimata}}, are [[Sanskrit]] treatises on lapidary arts. They discuss sources of gems and diamonds, their origins, qualities, testing, cutting and polishing, and making jewelry from them.<ref name=banerji121>{{cite book|author=Sures Chandra Banerji|title=A Companion to Sanskrit Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JkOAEdIsdUsC&pg=PA121|year=1989|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0063-2|page=121}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Dictionary of Gems and Gemology|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionarygemsge00manu_831|url-access=limited|year=2009|page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionarygemsge00manu_831/page/n19 10]|author=Mohsen Manutchehr-Danai| publisher=Berlin: Springer| isbn= 978-3-540-72795-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Louis Finot|title=Les lapidaires indiens|url=https://archive.org/details/leslapidairesin00finogoog |year=1896|publisher=Champion|language=sa, fr|pages=[https://archive.org/details/leslapidairesin00finogoog/page/n148 77]–139, see other chapters as well}}</ref> Several other Sanskrit texts on gems and lapidary arts have been dated to post-10th century, suggesting a continuous lapidary practice.<ref>{{cite book|author=Louis Finot|title=Les lapidaires indiens|url=https://archive.org/details/leslapidairesin00finogoog |year=1896|publisher=Champion|language=sa, fr|pages=xiv–xv with footnotes}}</ref>

According to Jason Hawkes and [[Stephanie Wynne-Jones]], archaeological evidence suggests that trade in lapidary products between Africa and India was established in the 1st millennium CE. People of the [[Deccan]] region of India and those near the coast of [[East Africa]] had innovated their own techniques for lapidary before the 10th century, as evidenced by excavations and Indian and non-Indian texts dated to that period.<ref>Jason D. Hawkes and Stephanie Wynne-Jones (2015), [https://afriques.revues.org/1752 India in Africa: Trade goods and connections of the late first millennium], L’Afrique Orientale et l’océan Indien: connexions, réseaux d'échanges et globalization, Journal: Afriques, Volume 6 (June 2015), Quote: "'' The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea'', and the Sanskrit ''Mricchakatika'' both refer to the jewels made in Ujjain. The evidence from excavations at Ujjain itself, as well as that from surrounding villages, supports this identification. These workshops fed the main market for international trade at the city port of Baruch, at the mouth of the Narmada, which has long been recognized as the main coastal port of the early first millennium. At some point in the mid to late first millennium AD, the center of lapidary workshops appears to have moved from Ujjain to Limudra, and the main port shifted to Khambhat. Exactly when this shift took place and why it occurred is unclear. What is interesting, however, is that throughout the first millennium AD there was a clear and close spatial association between 1) source areas, 2) production centers, and 3) ports connected to the Indian Ocean."</ref>

Lapidary was also a significant tradition in early [[Mesoamerica]]. The lapidary products were used as status symbols, for offerings, and during burials. They were made from [[Seashell|shell]], [[jade]], [[turquoise]], and [[Greenstone (archaeology)|greenstones]]. [[Aztec]] lapidarists used string saws and drills made of reed and bone as their lapidary tools.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Susan Toby Evans|author2=David L. Webster|title=Archaeology of Ancient Mexico and Central America: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZ3DAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA400|year=2013|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-136-80185-3|page=400}}</ref>

=== Medieval lapidaries ===

The history of lapidaries can be traced back to the classical world, where writers like Theophrastus and Pliny the Elder laid the foundations for later medieval interpretations of gemstones. In his examination of ''lyngurium''—a mythical gemstone described by Theophrastus—Steven A. Walton discusses how classical knowledge was transmitted and adapted in medieval lapidary traditions. Despite the mythical nature of some of these stones, medieval lapidaries continued to draw on classical sources, blending scientific knowledge with magical beliefs. Walton highlights how these texts cataloged stones not only for their aesthetic and material properties but also for their purported magical and medicinal functions, making lapidaries sources essential for texts for both scholars and practitioners of natural philosophy during the medieval period.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Walton |first=Steven A. |date=January 2001 |title=Theophrastus on<i>Lyngurium</i>: Medieval and Early Modern Lore from the Classical Lapidary Tradition |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/000337900110041371 |journal=Annals of Science |volume=58 |issue=4 |pages=357–379 |doi=10.1080/000337900110041371 |pmid=11724065 |issn=0003-3790}}</ref>

In Anglo-Saxon England, lapidaries became particularly significant as both medical and religious guides. Peter Kitson traces the transmission of lapidary knowledge into early medieval England, emphasizing how these texts informed by Lapidaries functioned as practical manuals for physicians, clergy, and scholars. The ''Old English Lapidary'', for instance, detailed the healing properties of stones, reflecting the belief that gemstones could cure illnesses and provide spiritual protection. Kitson argues that lapidaries in this period served a dual purpose: they were not only scientific texts that described natural phenomena but also moral and religious guides that connected material objects to divine forces.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kitson |first=Peter |date=December 1978 |title=Lapidary traditions in Anglo-Saxon England: part I, the background; the Old English Lapidary |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0263675100002854 |journal=Anglo-Saxon England |volume=7 |pages=9–60 |doi=10.1017/s0263675100002854 |issn=0263-6751}}</ref>

Medieval lapidaries were deeply embedded in the practice of lithotherapy, the belief in the healing properties of stones. John M. Riddle’s analysis of lithotherapy in the Middle Ages emphasizes the medical role lapidaries played, particularly in guiding the use of gemstones for healing. These texts described how different stones, often categorized by color, composition, and astrological associations, could be used to treat specific ailments. Riddle points out that medieval lapidaries were not merely collections of folklore; they were often considered legitimate medical texts, consulted by physicians and healers to guide treatment practices.<ref>{{Citation |last=Boyle |first=Robert W. |title=Gold During the Middle Ages |date=1987 |work=Gold |pages=39–50 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-1969-6_5 |access-date=2024-11-06 |place=Boston, MA |publisher=Springer US |doi=10.1007/978-1-4613-1969-6_5 |isbn=978-1-4612-9169-5}}</ref>

The ''Peterborough Lapidary'' is another example of a medieval lapidary that reflects the blending of practical and mystical knowledge. As detailed in ''A Medieval Book of Magical Stones: The Peterborough Lapidary'', this text catalogs various gemstones and their magical properties, emphasizing the belief that stones could influence human behavior, protect against harm, and even cure diseases. The ''Peterborough Lapidary'' demonstrates how lapidaries were used not only for healing but also for magical and protective purposes, reflecting the medieval understanding that the natural world was imbued with supernatural power.<ref>{{Citation |title=Magical Stones or Amulets |date=2013-12-19 |work=Egyptian Magic |pages=45–84 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315828619-9 |access-date=2024-11-06 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315828619-9 |doi-broken-date=2024-11-06 |isbn=978-1-315-82861-9}}</ref>

Lapidaries also played an important role in medieval spirituality. Richard A. Beinert’s analysis of medieval piety and lapidary literature emphasizes how these texts reflected religious beliefs. Medieval Christians often associated gemstones with biblical figures, virtues, and divine forces. Lapidaries like the ''Peterborough Lapidary'' reinforced the idea that stones had sacred meanings, offering protection and spiritual benefits to those who used them correctly. Beinert suggests that these texts served as “windows on a medieval world” where natural objects were seen as manifestations of divine power, bridging the gap between the material and the spiritual.<ref>{{Citation |last=Jasperse |first=Jitske |title=Treasuries as Windows to the Medieval World |date=2022-01-05 |work=Authorship, Worldview, and Identity in Medieval Europe |pages=171–197 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003025160-10 |access-date=2024-11-06 |place=London |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781003025160-10 |isbn=978-1-003-02516-0}}</ref>

Several notable examples of medieval lapidaries highlight their widespread use and cultural significance. The ''Lapidary of Sydrac'', a 13th-century text, stands out for its inclusion of unusual lore about gemstones. William M. Holler notes that the ''Lapidary of Sydrac'' cataloged not only conventional healing properties of stones but also fantastical claims, such as stones that could grant invincibility or manipulate human emotions. This text reflects the broader medieval belief in the mystical powers of nature and the importance of lapidaries in transmitting both empirical knowledge and magical traditions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Holler |first=William M. |date=November 1986 |title=The <i>Lapidary of Sydrac:</i> New Evidence on the Origin of the <i>Lapidaire chrétien</i> |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1484/j.mss.3.1204 |journal=Manuscripta |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=181–190 |doi=10.1484/j.mss.3.1204 |issn=0025-2603}}</ref>

In literary contexts, lapidary traditions also made their way into poetry. Tony Davenport’s analysis of the medieval poem ''Pearl'' reveals how the symbolic meanings of gemstones, as described in lapidaries, informed the poem’s themes of loss, beauty, and spiritual transcendence. Davenport suggests that the portrayal of jewels in ''Pearl'' draws on lapidary traditions to convey deeper religious and moral messages, illustrating how lapidary knowledge permeated not only scientific and medical texts but also literary and artistic works.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Davenport |first=T. |date=2007-11-27 |title=Jewels and Jewellers in Pearl |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/res/hgm168 |journal=The Review of English Studies |volume=59 |issue=241 |pages=508–520 |doi=10.1093/res/hgm168 |issn=0034-6551}}</ref>